このページの批評は終了しました。
ライセンス
原著者: Communism will win
ソース: http://scp-wiki.net/dr-vang-s-personnel-file
ライセンス: CC BY-SA 3.0communism will win
ページ情報
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私が知る限り、ヴァン博士は彼と異なる意見を有するすべての独身人物に賛同していることを注記しておきます。
It should be noted that Dr. Vang has upvoted every single person who's disagreed with him here, as far as I know.
そうは言ってもね。
That said.
7年生のとき、ヴァン博士はいっときの気まぐれから、何の準備もせずに大学進学適性試験を受験しました。彼がテストの存在を知ったのは1時間前で、彼は何の予習もしていませんでした。彼はこのテストで、地域の大学に出願するためにテストを利用している平均的な学生よりも高いスコアを獲得しました。
In 7th grade, Dr. Vang took an SAT test without preparing for it at all, it was spur-of-the-moment, he knew about it about an hour ahead of time and didn't do any research or anything. He scored higher on it than the average person using it to apply for college in his area.
IQテストの結果は、彼のIQが99.9%の値に位置することを示しています。これは彼が与えられたテストが到達する最高の結果であるか、そうでなくとも最高値から誤差の範囲内であると考えていいでしょう。
An IQ test has shown him to be in the 99.9th percentile for IQ. This is the highest result the test he was given reaches; anything further and they'd consider it to be within the margin of error for that test.
私の母の8年来の彼氏は、バージニア工科大学を卒業した航空宇宙技術者です。15歳の時、ヴァン博士は彼よりも物理学を理解していました。ヴァン博士は彼のアイデアが間違っており、また熱力学をよく理解していないせいで自分をムカつかせていることをまともに説明することがほとんどなく、ただ彼の考えが間違っていたことだけを彼に伝え、またそのために彼にほとんど恩義を感じていません。彼は技術者として特に成功しているわけではありませんが、私は他にも彼ほど物理学が得意ではない技術者に何人も会ったことがあるので、彼の境遇には物理学が苦手なこと以外の問題があるのでしょう。
My mother's boyfriend of 8 years is an aerospace engineer who graduated Virginia Tech. At the age of 15, Dr. Vang understands physics better than him, and he owes very little of it to him, as he would rarely give him a decent explanation of anything, just tell him that his ideas were wrong and become aggravated with him for not quite understanding thermodynamics. He's not particularly successful as an engineer, but I've met lots of other engineers who aren't as good as him at physics, so I'm guessing that's not just a result of him being bad at it.
ヴァン博士は工学にも長けています。彼は学位を持っていませんし、物理学以外の工学の様々な側面については実際の技術者ほど理解しているわけではありませんが、新しいものを生み出す発明的才能に優れています。例えば、彼は回生ブレーキをその技術が発見される前に独自に開発し、わずか7、8歳で非接触電力伝送を発明し始めていました(私の最初の考えは、強力な赤外線レーザーを使ってエネルギーを伝送するというものでしたが、確かにそれは最適解ではありませんでした)。
Dr. Vang is also pretty good at engineering. He doesn't have a degree, and other than physics he doesn't have a better understanding of any aspect of engineering than any actual engineer, but he has lots of ingenuity for inventing new things. For example, he independently invented regenerative brakes before finding out what they were, and he was only seven or eight years old when he started inventing wireless electricity solutions (my first idea being to use a powerful infrared laser to transmit energy; admittedly not the best plan).
ヴァン博士は、彼が遭遇した哲学のほぼすべての分野について独自に考えてきました。SMBCやxkcd、Redditなどで議論されている実存主義についての質問は、私にとっては新しいものではありませんでした。哲学は彼にとってかなりつまらないものになってしまっていて、彼はどれほど簡単なのかを確かめるために哲学の授業を受けようと考えているようです。
Dr. Vang has independently thought of basically every branch of philosophy he's come across. Every question of existentialism which he's seen discussed in SMBC or xkcd or Reddit or anywhere else, the thoughts haven't been new to me. Philosophy has pretty much gotten trivial for him; he's considered taking a philosophy course just to see how easy it is.
心理学について、バン博士は学位保持者よりも実際によく理解しています。工学と違って、心理学には彼がよく理解していない部分はありません。彼はジークムント・フロイトの理論でさえ、多くの欺瞞を暴くことができます。
Psychology, Dr. Vang actually understands better than people with degrees. Unlike engineering, there's no aspect of psychology which he doesn't have a very good understanding of. He ccan debunk many of even Sigmund Freud's theories.
ヴァン博士は本を書いていますが、これまでのところ、読んだ人は誰もが、それが出版されることを期待して、本当に良い、もっともらしいと言っています。それは彼や家族だけではなく、インターネット上の見知らぬ人も含めてだ。これまでのところ、否定的な評価はゼロで、批判はされても侮辱はされていない。
Dr. Vang is a good enough writer that he's writing a book and so far everybody who's read any of it has said it was really good and plausible to expect to have published. And that's not just, like, him and family members, that counts strangers on the Internet. He's heard zero negative appraisal of it so far; people have critiqued it, but not insulted it.
それが バン博士が知的だという証拠になるかどうかは わからないが 私はむしろ彼の成熟度を擁護したいと思っているので、あなたが最も時間をかけて攻撃しているのはそれだからです。以下は彼の道徳と倫理規定の例です。
I don't know if that will suffice as evidence that Dr. Vang is intelligent. I'm done with it, though, because I'd rather defend his maturity, since it's what you've spent the most time attacking. The following are some examples of his morals and ethical code.
バン博士は誰もが未来に値すると固く信じている。第二次世界大戦の終わりにヒトラーを捕らえたとしても、バン博士はヒトラーを処刑することに反対します。実際、もし彼を更生させ、彼が偽物ではないことを知る方法があれば、バン博士は彼を自由にすることにさえ賛成するでしょう。これは基本的に、現在の自分が誰であろうと、過去の自分と未来の自分とは別個の存在であり、現在の自分は過去の自分の行動に責任を負うべきであるが、罰を与えるためだけに罰を与えるべきではないと彼が考えているからです。
Dr. Vang believes firmly that everybody deserves a future. If we were to capture Hitler at the end of WWII, Dr. Vang would be against executing him. In fact, if we had any way of rehabilitating him and knowing that he wasn't just faking it, Dr. Vang would even support the concept of letting him go free. This is essentially because he thinks that whoever you are in the present is a separate entity from who you were in the past and who you are in the future, and while your present self should take responsibility for your past self's actions, it shouldn't be punished for them simply for the sake of punishment, especially if the present self regrets the actions of the past self and feels genuine guilt about them.
Dr. Vangは、個人的な選択が他人に害を与えない限り、個人的な選択に基づいて人々を判断することを信じていません。彼はどんなタイプのセクシュアリティにも問題はありません(ネクロフィリア、ペドフィリア、または他の人に有害な影響を与える他の行為を物理的に実行することを除いて-しかし、現実とフィクションの違いを認識し、それらを分離することができる限り、彼は人の空想が何で構成されているか気にしません)。彼は、どんな音楽を聴こうが、どんな服を着ようが、何の問題もありません。これは印象的なモラルではないとは思いますが、残念ながら稀なことです。
Dr. Vang doesn't believe in judgement of people based on their personal choices as long as those personal choices aren't harming others. He doesn't have any issue with any type of sexuality whatsoever (short of physically acting out necrophilia, pedophilia, or other acts which have a harmful affect on others - but he doesn't care what a person's fantasies consist of, as long as they recognize the difference between reality and fiction and can separate them). He doesn't have any issue with anybody over what type of music they listen to, or clothes they wear, etc. I know that's not really an impressive moral, but it's unfortunately rare; a great many people, especially those my age, are judgmental about these things.
特に私と同年代の人たちのように、このようなことで判断を下す人は非常に多いのです。彼は最悪の敵に幸運と幸福を願う。リック・ペリーは下劣でクソみたいな人間で、尊敬に値しませんが、バン博士は彼がより良い方向に変わり、可能な限り最高の人生を送ることを願っています。彼は皆にそう願っています
Dr. Vang loves everyone, even people he hates. He wishes his worst enemies good fortune and happiness. Rick Perry is a vile, piece of shit human being, deserving of zero respect, but Dr. Vang wishes for him to change for the better and live the best life possible. He wishes this for everyone.
バン博士は平和主義者です。彼は反撃もせず、報復も求めずに鼻を折られてしまったが、それ以降は相手がパンチをしなくなってしまったからだ。彼が反撃するのは、①攻撃してきた相手が止まる気配を見せない場合、②バン博士が攻撃しなければ、相手が攻撃してきた時よりも悪い状態で出てくる場合だけです。つまり、相手と戦うことが、放っておくよりも自分に害を及ぼすことになるのであれば、彼は反撃しない。それゆえに、彼は今まで痛みを取る能力によって、喧嘩をした後に自分が悪くなるような状況に陥ったことがないので、何か重大なことがあっても、誰かに反撃する理由がないのです。入院するような怪我をしないのであれば、彼は本当に気にしない。
Dr. Vang is pretty much a pacifist. He's taken a broken nose without fighting back or seeking retribution, because the guy stopped punching after that. The only time he'll fight back is if 1) the person attacking him shows no signs of stopping and 2) if Dr. Vang don't attack, he'll come out worse than the other person will if he does. In other words, if fighting someone is going to end up being more harmful to them than just letting them go will be to me, he doesn't fight back. He's therefore never had a reason to fight back against anyone in anything serious, because his ability to take pain has so far made it so that he's never in a situation where he'll be worse off after a fight. If he's not going to get any hospitalizing injuries, he really dosn't care.
例外は自分の命を狙う者がいる場合だけだ その場合でも彼は自分の身を守るために可能な限り最小限の害を与えるだろう。誰かが自分に銃を向けてきても、相手に危害を加えずに逃げられるなら、殺すよりもその方がいいだろう。
The only exception is if someone is going after his life. Even then, he'll do the minimum amount of harm to them that he possibly can in protecting himself. If someone points a gun at him and he can get out of it without harming them, he'd prefer to do that over killing them.
バン博士は自分自身をフェミニストだと思っている。彼は強制された、または均一な性別の役割を信じていません。つまり、男女の役割に対する社会的な圧力は、たとえ大多数の人間関係が自分の意志で同じように動作し続けていることが判明したとしても、本当に行くべきだということです。彼は、彼が男性を扱うのと同じ見通しで女性を扱い、古いRedditの "女性は狂っている "サークルジャークに参加しないでください、そこに複数の女性があり、それぞれが異なる人格を持っているのと同じように、そこに複数の男性があり、それぞれが異なる人格を持っているので。彼は、あなたが素晴らしい女性を怖がらせること以外は何もしていないと思っていますが、そうではない女性のことを延々と語ることで、素晴らしい女性を怖がらせています。
Dr. Vang considers himself a feminist. He doesn't believe in enforced or uniform gender roles; they may happen naturally, but they should never be coerced into happening unnaturally. As in, the societal pressure for gender roles should really go, even if it'll turn out that the majority of relationships continue operating the same way of their own accord. He treats women with the same outlook he treats men, and never participate in the old Reddit "women are crazy" circlejerk, because there are multiple women out there and each have different personalities just like there are multiple men out there and each with different personalities. He doesn't think you do much of anything except scare off the awesome women out there by going on and on about the ones who aren't awesome.
それは彼が女性を犠牲にする場所を探しているという意味ではなく、彼はただ、それが実際にはそうではないときにすべてのものがOKであるかのように振る舞う女性についての1つのような一般化することが公正であると信じていない(そして、それはすべての人間がそれを行うので、特に厳しい例です)。
That doesn't mean he looks for places to victimize women, he just doesn't believe it's fair to make generalizations such as the one about women acting like everything's OK when it's really not (and that's a particularly harsh example, because all humans do that).
私はこれらの例を引用するのに疲れているし、あなたもここまで来たのなら、それらを読むのに疲れてきているのではないでしょうか。最後に、実生活でヴァング博士を知っている人はみんな彼を尊敬しているし、彼がほとんどの時間を過ごしているRedditのブロンズコミュニティの多くの人もそうだし、彼がコミュニティの周りで役に立っていることでかなり知られている。彼のセグメントのコミュニティの多くの人々は落ち込んでいたり、つらい時を過ごしていたりして、彼はそこにいる人々にアドバイスやサポートを与えることに多くの時間を費やしている。昨日、ある人が、みんなに好きなモチベーションやインスピレーションになる名言を聞いた投稿の中で、彼がこのようなことをしていたという事例を引用していました。
I'm kind of tired of citing these examples and I'm guessing you're getting tired of reading them, if you've even made it this far. In closing, the people who know Dr. Vang in real life all respect him, as do a great many people in the Reddit brony community, where he spends most of his time and where he's pretty known for being helpful around the community. A lot of people in his segment of the community are depressed or going through hard times, and he spends a lot of time giving advice and support to people there. Yesterday someone quoted a case of him doing this in a post asking everyone what their favorite motivational/inspirational quote was, and that comment was second to the top, so I guess other people agreed (though, granted, it was a pretty low-traffic post, only about a dozen competing comments).
そして、彼はかなり良いモデレーターです。
And, uh, he's a pretty good moderator.
それだけで、このスレッドでのあなたの行動は完全に無礼なものだったと思います。それで、今、あなたはどう思う?少なくとも少しだけバン博士を知っていますか?
All that, and I think your behavior in this thread was totally assholish. So what do you think, now that you at least slightly know Dr. Vang?
公平性を期して最初に言っておくと、ゲーマーズ・アゲインスト・ウィードを理解するためには非常に高いIQが必要不可欠だ。この手のユーモアは非常に微妙で、著者がインターネットミームをしっかりと把握していないと、ジョークのほとんどは典型的な読者の頭の上を飛んでいってしまう。また同時に、Bluntfiendのニヒリスティックな考え方も重要で、これは彼のキャラクターに巧みに織り込まれている — 彼の個人的な哲学は、一例としては、帝政ロシア期の革命文学に大きく影響されている。GAWのファンたちはこれらのことを理解している — 彼らはジョークの奥深さの真価を認められるだけの知的能力を有していて、そのジョークが単に面白いだけではなく、人生について深いことを語っていることをわかっている。結論としては、ゲーマーズ・アゲインスト・ウィードが嫌いな連中は本当にバカだ — もちろん彼らは、例えばgaycopmp4の実存主義的キャッチフレーズ "im breaking up with you"のユーモアを理解していないだろうが、それ自体はツルゲーネフの『父と子』への暗黙の言及だ。私はいま、Scantronとkinchtheknifebladeの天才的作品がパソコンの画面に映し出され、混乱して頭を掻いている間抜け野郎どもの一人を想像してニヤニヤしている。愚か者め…まったく、なんて哀れなんだろう😂
To be fair, you have to have a very high IQ to understand Gamers Against Weed. The humor is extremely subtle, and without a solid grasp of internet memes most of the jokes will go over a typical viewer's head. There's also Bluntfiend's nihilistic outlook, which is deftly woven into his characterisation - his personal philosophy draws heavily from Narodnaya Volya literature, for instance. The fans understand this stuff; they have the intellectual capacity to truly appreciate the depths of these jokes, to realize that they're not just funny- they say something deep about LIFE. As a consequence people who dislike Gamers Against Weed truly ARE idiots- of course they wouldn't appreciate, for instance, the humour in gaycopmp4's existencial catchphrase "im breaking up with you," which itself is a cryptic reference to Turgenev's Russian epic Fathers and Sons. I'm smirking right now just imagining one of those addlepated simpletons scratching their heads in confusion as Scantron and kinchtheknifeblade's genius unfolds itself on their computer screens. What fools… how I pity them. 😂
そうそう、ついでの話だけど、私はゲーマーズ・アゲインスト・ウィードのタトゥーをしてる。見えないようにね。左翼のやつだけがタトゥーを見ることができる — そして彼らでさえ、あらかじめ私とのIQの差が5点以内(できれば、私より低い方)であることを証明しなければならないのさ。
And yes by the way, I DO have a Gamers Against Weed tattoo. And no, you cannot see it. It's for leftist eyes only- And even they have to demonstrate that they're within 5 IQ points of my own (preferably lower) beforehand.
SCP-4404 - 静寂の香り
SCP-4018 - Eye
SCP-018-J - Normal Trench Coat Worn By An Adult
SCP-4004 - 大願成就 (kinchtheknifeblade との共著)
Serving the Twin Cities Since 2021
SCP-3406 - 目覚め
SCP-3269 - Pop Culture
SCP-3262 - Fire of Unknown Origin
SCP-3181 - 骨無しにしてやんよ
SCP-3158 - 不都合な
SCP-3154 - 終末状態変位器具
SCP-3124 - フットボールじゃない
SCP-3116 - It's time to stop posting
SCP-3028 - Take On Me
SCP-3909 - Wu Tang Clan Ain't Nuthing ta Fuck To
SCP-3808 - 正当化を要求するベーコンチーズバーガー
SCP-3707 - 夜逃げ専用
SCP-3606 - Praise You (lilDecemberist does not match any existing user name との共著)
SCP-3505 - Singed, Sealed, Delivered, I'm Yours
SCP-3404 - 病気をやっつけろ
untitled essay
"Art" by CWW
The Reason Ulysses Doesn't Start With WARNING: IT'S GOT A BLOWJOB IN IT
how-to-get-good-feedback
SCP-3303 - シャンパン超新星
SCP-TLDR-J - An Easily Digestible Document
SCP-3202 - Habeeb It
SCP-3023 - そうしてそれは腹を立てたクモになることに決めましたとさ
SCP-3021 - Q=
SCP-3022 - 気持ち的に引っ掛かる
SCP-3024 - 晒し屋ゴースト
SCP-3113 - 我が道を行く
reality-innocents
SCP-3003 - The End of History
SCP-2586 - そいつは僕の名前じゃない
SCP-2562 - GGRKS
SCP-2726 - Post Ghost
shocking-ignorance-regarding-anything-resembling-a-structure
the-assassination-of-beleaguered-normalcy-by-the-coward-game
SCP-1466 - カナリア
SCP-2826 - 警邏の連中
mr-normie
SCP-2842 - It's A Meme, You Dip
SCP-2628 - Efficient Tenders of the Artifice
laughter
SCP-2486 - ザクロ絞め
Di Molte Voci
confirmed-sightings
how-to-become-a-better-critic
SCP-2462 - もう上辺だけの友人にも、ドラマにも、嘘吐きにも、無視されることにも、傷付くことにもうんざりしてしまったんだ
SCP-19316-J - Improper Terminology
SCP-2804 - 撃って忘れる
SCP-103-J - 証明済み
SCP-2466 - ドラゴンを倒して街を救おう
SCP-2134 - 避難所
SCP-2926 - 概念校正機
SCP-2808 - 審判の日
かつて図書館だったSCP-2602 - 旧・図書館
SCP-2526 - 独立霊養生物
SCP-2204 - トリプル・スレット:小さな町の無名なアイツら
SCP-2496 - 新平行線公進
SCP-2122 - ブラックホール
inside-out
Nucleation
SCP-2156 - 赤と黒
SCP-2357 - 完全なるSCP
that-s-the-joke
SCP-2020 - 陳腐、でしょ?
SCP-1041 - 多重人過去障害
SCP-1668 - 我らを知識より救い出し給え
SCP-1422 - イエローストーンの怪
SCP-1846 - とうもろこしの使者
SCP-1141 - 起業家精神
SCP-1962 - 古代エジプト超兵器
SCP-1306 - 万能鳥餌
SCP-1902 - 健忘症の神ごみ様
SCP-1704 - やり遂げた務め
awakenings-part-two
misnomer
reservoir-skips
SCP-1564 - 涅槃の後
SCP-824 - 活発な雑草制御
SCP-1868 - 彼女のために話す
SCP-1606 - 記憶喪失
in-other-news
SCP-1246 - 石の螺旋
SCP-5280-J - 陳腐化した尺度
SCP-1626 - 酔いどれシャツ
SCP-____-J - 先延ばs
SCP-1646 - 復讐
SCP-1248 - 人格録音機
SCP-1268 - 集団ヒステリー
SCP-984 - 公衆トイレ
スキャントロンの提言 - 財団
bees
SCP-1448 - 旅する都市伝説
SCP-868 - 記憶改善ミーム
メインリスト:
スキャントロンの提言
SCP-824
SCP-868
SCP-984
SCP-1041
SCP-1141
SCP-1246
SCP-1248
SCP-1268
SCP-1306
SCP-1422
SCP-1448
SCP-1466
SCP-1564
SCP-1606
SCP-1626
SCP-1646
SCP-1668
SCP-1704
SCP-1846
SCP-1868
SCP-1902
SCP-1962
SCP-2020
SCP-2122
SCP-2134
SCP-2156
SCP-2204
SCP-2357
SCP-2462
SCP-2466
SCP-2486
SCP-2496
SCP-2526
SCP-2562
SCP-2586
かつて図書館だったSCP-2602
SCP-2628
SCP-2726
SCP-2804
SCP-2808
SCP-2826
SCP-2842
Di Molte Voci
SCP-2926
SCP-3003
SCP-3021
SCP-3022
SCP-3023
SCP-3024
SCP-3028
SCP-3113
SCP-3124
SCP-3154
SCP-3158
SCP-3181
SCP-3202
SCP-3262
SCP-3269
SCP-3303
SCP-3404
SCP-3406
SCP-3505
SCP-3606 - lilDecemberist does not match any existing user name との共著
SCP-3707
SCP-3808
SCP-3909
SCP-4004 - kinchtheknifeblade との共著
SCP-4018
SCP-4404
ジョーク:
SCP-018-J
SCP-103-J
SCP-19316-J
SCP-5280-J
SCP-TLDR-J
SCP-____-J
Tales:
awakenings-part-two
bees
confirmed-sightings
in-other-news
inside-out
laughter
misnomer
reality-innocents
reservoir-skips
serving-the-twin-cities-since-2021
shocking-ignorance-regarding-anything-resembling-a-structure
that-s-the-joke
the-assassination-of-beleaguered-normalcy-by-the-coward-game
Nucleation
The Reason Ulysses Doesn't Start With WARNING: IT'S GOT A BLOWJOB IN IT
その他:
"Art" by CWW
mr-normie
how-to-get-good-feedback
how-to-become-a-better-critic
untitled essay
改稿 — 整理はしてないぞくそったれ
Rewrites, i'm not sorting these fuck you
SCP-3026 - ファッショナブルな神経喰らい、原著者はStarwarsbanana
SCP-660 - 土の子宮、原著者はMelWong
SCP-1394 - 夢の注射器、原著者はMookVanguard
SCP-402 - 黒曜石吸収剤、原著者不明, 最初の改稿者はQuantumApples
SCP-928 - 白のキング、原著者はDave Rapp
SCP-625 - 臑齧り、原著者はDr Kondraki
SCP-336 - リリス、原著者はDr Kondraki (Lumancerと共同改稿)
SCP-721 - ファクトリーのおもちゃ、原著者はTheDuckMan (not_a_seagull does not match any existing user nameと共同改稿)
SCP-1347 - 質問でいっぱいの箱、原著者はdesoldeben
SCP-148 - 『テレキル』合金、原著者はLt Masipag
SCP-619 - 幸運のジーンズ、原著者はfar2
SCP-066 - エリックだけのおもちゃ、 原著者はfar2
Awakenings, Part Two の管理は thedeadlymoose が担当している。
What the fuck did you just fucking say about me, you little bitch? I’ll have you know I graduated top of my class in the Navy Seals, and I’ve been involved in numerous secret raids on Al-Quaeda, and I have over 300 confirmed kills. I am trained in gorilla warfare and I’m the top sniper in the entire US armed forces. You are nothing to me but just another target. I will wipe you the fuck out with precision the likes of which has never been seen before on this Earth, mark my fucking words. You think you can get away with saying that shit to me over the Internet? Think again, fucker. As we speak I am contacting my secret network of spies across the USA and your IP is being traced right now so you better prepare for the storm, maggot. The storm that wipes out the pathetic little thing you call your life. You’re fucking dead, kid. I can be anywhere, anytime, and I can kill you in over seven hundred ways, and that’s just with my bare hands. Not only am I extensively trained in unarmed combat, but I have access to the entire arsenal of the United States Marine Corps and I will use it to its full extent to wipe your miserable ass off the face of the continent, you little shit. If only you could have known what unholy retribution your little “clever” comment was about to bring down upon you, maybe you would have held your fucking tongue. But you couldn’t, you didn’t, and now you’re paying the price, you goddamn idiot. I will shit fury all over you and you will drown in it. You’re fucking dead, kiddo.
共産党宣言
Manifesto of the Communist Party
そう、それがすべて。
Yes, all of it.
一個の亡霊がヨーロッパを徘徊している — 共産主義という亡霊である。古いヨーロッパのあらゆる権力は、この怪物を討伐するために神聖同盟を結んでいる。ローマ教皇もツァーリも、メッテルニヒもギゾーも、フランスの急進派もドイツの官憲も。
A spectre is haunting Europe — the spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
見よ。在野の政党で、政敵たる政府与党から、共産主義的だといって誹謗されなかったものがあるか。また見よ、在野の政党で、他のより急進的な反政府派に対して、ならびにその保守的な政敵に対して、共産主義の烙印を押して非難を投げ返さなかったものがあるか。
Where is the party in opposition that has not been decried as communistic by its opponents in power? Where is the opposition that has not hurled back the branding reproach of communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries?
この事実から二つのことがあきらかになる。
Two things result from this fact:
- 共産主義は、あらゆるヨーロッパの権力者から、既に一つの力として認められている。
- 共産主義者が全世界の前にその見解、その目的、その傾向を公然と表示し、党自身の宣言をもって、共産主義の怪物という妖怪譚と対峙するべき時期が、既に来ている。
- Communism is already acknowledged by all European powers to be itself a power.
- It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the Spectre of Communism with a manifesto of the party itself.
この目的のために、諸国の共産主義者がロンドンに集まって、次の宣言を起草した。宣言は、英語、フランス語、ドイツ語、イタリア語、フレミッシュ語およびデンマーク語で発表される。
To this end, Communists of various nationalities have assembled in London and sketched the following manifesto, to be published in the English, French, German, Italian, Flemish and Danish languages.
第I章. ブルジョアとプロレタリア1
Chapter I. Bourgeois and Proletarians2
全てこれまで一切の社会の歴史3は、階級闘争の歴史である。
The history of all hitherto existing society4 is the history of class struggles.
自由民と奴隷、貴族と平民、領主と農奴、ギルドの親方5と徒弟職人、一言にすれば抑圧者と被抑圧者とは古来常に相対立して、時には公然と、あるいは隠然と闘争を継続してきた。そしてその闘争はいつでも、社会全体の革命的改造に終わるか、さもなくば相争う両階層の共倒れに終わるのであった。
Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master6 and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.
歴史の初期にあっては、ほとんど至るところで、社会は種々な階層と社会的地位の複雑な序列によって、完全に区分されていた。古代ローマには、貴族、騎士、平民、奴隷の身分があり、中世には、封建領主、家来、ギルドの親方、徒弟、農奴がいた。そしてそれらの諸階級のほとんどすべてに、またそれぞれの小区分があった。
In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.
封建社会の没落から生じた近世のブルジョア社会もまた、階級対立を除去してはいない。ただ新しい階級をつくり、新しい抑圧条件をつくり、新しい闘争形式をつくって、昔の階級制度に置き換えただけである。
The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.
けれども、我々の時代、すなわちブルジョアの時代は、この階級対立を単純にしたところが特徴的である。全社会は次第に、互いを敵視する二大陣営、直接相互に対立する二大階級に分裂しつつある。すなわち、ブルジョアとプロレタリアである。
Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other — Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.
そもそも中世の農奴の中から、初期の諸都市における特許市民が出現した。そしてこれらの特許市民の中から、ブルジョアジーの最初の要素が発展したのである。
From the serfs of the Middle Ages sprang the chartered burghers of the earliest towns. From these burgesses the first elements of the bourgeoisie were developed.
アメリカの発見と喜望峰の回航は、この新興のブルジョア勢力のために新しい地盤をつくり出した。東インドおよび中国の市場、アメリカの植民地化、植民地との貿易、交換手段および全般的な商品の増加は、商業に、航海に、工業に、空前の刺激を与え、それによって、既に崩壊しかけていた封建社会内の革命的要素に急激な発達を促した。
The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonisation of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development.
これまでの封建的もしくはギルド的な工業体制では、もはや新市場とともに拡大する需要に応じることは不可能となっていた。こうして、工場制手工業がそれにとって代わった。ギルドの親方は工場制手工業における中産階級に押しのけられた。種々な同業組合どうしの分業体制は、それぞれの単一工場内の分業の前に消滅した。
The feudal system of industry, in which industrial production was monopolised by closed guilds, now no longer sufficed for the growing wants of the new markets. The manufacturing system took its place. The guild-masters were pushed on one side by the manufacturing middle class; division of labour between the different corporate guilds vanished in the face of division of labour in each single workshop.
それらの変化の間、市場はいよいよ拡大し、需要はいよいよ増加した。工場制手工業すらももはや需要に応じることができなくなりつつあった。その結果、蒸気と機械とが工業生産を革命した。工場制手工業の代わりに近代的大工業が出現し、工場制手工業の中産階級の代わりに産業的大富豪、全産業軍の指揮官たち、すなわち近代的ブルジョアがあらわれた。
Meantime the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever rising. Even manufacturer no longer sufficed. Thereupon, steam and machinery revolutionised industrial production. The place of manufacture was taken by the giant, Modern Industry; the place of the industrial middle class by industrial millionaires, the leaders of the whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois.
この近代産業が世界市場を作り上げた。アメリカの発見はその前段階だったのである。この世界市場は商業に、航海に、陸上の交通に、はかりしれない絶大な発展をもたらし、その発展がまた、産業の拡大に逆影響を及ぼした。つまり工業、商業、航海、鉄道が拡大する動きに比例して、ブルジョアジーが発達し、その資本が増加し、中世から殘存していたすべての階級を背後に押しやってしまった。
Modern industry has established the world market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land. This development has, in its turn, reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages.
かくして我々は、近代的ブルジョアジーそのものが、長い発展行程の産物であり、また、生産および交換の方式における幾重にも連鎖する様々な変革の産物であることを知るに至る。
We see, therefore, how the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange.
ブルジョアジーのこれらの発展の各段階は、またそれに対応する政治的進歩を伴っていた。ブルジョアジーは、初期には封建的領主の支配下において抑圧されていた一階級であり、また武装した自治組織としてのコミューン7であり、あるところでは(イタリアやドイツのように)独立の都市共和国となり、あるところでは(フランスのように)王政下で納税義務を負う第三身分となった。次に工場制手工業の時代にあっては、ブルジョアジーは半封建的もしくは絶対王政における貴族の対抗勢力となり、また一般的な大君主国の主要基盤となり、最後には、大工業と世界市場の形成以後、近代的な代議制国家の中で、独占的な政治支配を勝ち取った。近代国家の政府などというものは、ブルジョア階級全体のためにその共同事務を代行する委員会に過ぎない。
Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompanied by a corresponding political advance of that class. An oppressed class under the sway of the feudal nobility, an armed and self-governing association in the medieval commune8: here independent urban republic (as in Italy and Germany); there taxable “third estate” of the monarchy (as in France); afterwards, in the period of manufacturing proper, serving either the semi-feudal or the absolute monarchy as a counterpoise against the nobility, and, in fact, cornerstone of the great monarchies in general, the bourgeoisie has at last, since the establishment of Modern Industry and of the world market, conquered for itself, in the modern representative State, exclusive political sway. The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.
ブルジョアジーは歴史上において、最も革命的な役割を果たしたものである。
The bourgeoisie, historically, has played a most revolutionary part.
ブルジョアジーが支配権を握ったところでは、すべての封建的な、家父長制的な、牧歌的な関係が破壊された。それまで人間を、その生来の目上の関係にあるものたちと結びつけていた色とりどりの封建的な紐帯は、無惨に引きちぎられて、人と人とを結びつけるものは、ただ露骨なまでの利益、冷酷な金銭勘定よりほかには何も残ることがなかった。宗教的情熱や、騎士道的熱狂や、町人的感傷などいう神聖な陶酔は、氷のように冷たい利己的な打算の水中に溺死させられた。個々の人物の価値は交換価値の中に消え去り、永きに渡って勝ち得られてきた無数の特許的自由の代わりに、ただ一つの非情な商業的自由が設定された。一言でいえば、ブルジョアジーは、宗教的および政治的な幻想で覆われた搾取の代わりに、公然たる、恥知らずで、直接の剥き出しな搾取をそこにおいたのである。
The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his “natural superiors”, and has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous “cash payment”. It has drowned the most heavenly ecstasies of religious fervour, of chivalrous enthusiasm, of philistine sentimentalism, in the icy water of egotistical calculation. It has resolved personal worth into exchange value, and in place of the numberless indefeasible chartered freedoms, has set up that single, unconscionable freedom — Free Trade. In one word, for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation.
ブルジョアジーは、それまで名誉と尊敬の対象として称えられてきたあらゆる職業から、その後光を剥ぎ取ってしまった。医師も、法律家も、僧侶も、詩人も、学者も、みな彼らに雇われる賃金労働者に変えられてしまった。
The bourgeoisie has stripped of its halo every occupation hitherto honoured and looked up to with reverent awe. It has converted the physician, the lawyer, the priest, the poet, the man of science, into its paid wage labourers.
ブルジョアジーは、家族関係からその感傷的なヴェールを破り去って、ただの金銭的な関係に還元してしまった。
The bourgeoisie has torn away from the family its sentimental veil, and has reduced the family relation to a mere money relation.
ブルジョアジーは、反動主義者がしきりに賛美するところの、あの中世時代の人々の蛮勇的活力が、怠惰を極めた安逸の生活といかに表裏一体を成していたのかを明示した。ブルジョアジーは、人間の活動がどれほどのことをなしとげうるかを真っ先に示した。彼らはエジプトのピラミッドや、ローマの水道や、ゴシック式の大聖堂を遥かに超える大工事を完成させ、またかつての民族大移動や十字軍を凌駕する大遠征を決行したのである。
The bourgeoisie has disclosed how it came to pass that the brutal display of vigour in the Middle Ages, which reactionaries so much admire, found its fitting complement in the most slothful indolence. It has been the first to show what man’s activity can bring about. It has accomplished wonders far surpassing Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and Gothic cathedrals; it has conducted expeditions that put in the shade all former Exoduses of nations and crusades.
ブルジョアジーは、絶えず生産器具を革命的に変化させ、それによって生産関係を変化させ、またそれによって社会関係全体を常に変化させなくては存在することができない。これに反し、古い生産方法を変えることなく保存することが、これまでにおけるすべての工業階級の第一の生存条件だった。絶えず生産を革命的に変化させ、あらゆる社会状態を動揺の中に置き続け、永久の不安定と変動をもたらす、それこそがブルジョア時代とそれ以前のすべての時代とを区別する特徴である。すべての固定し錆び付いた関係は、それに伴う年老いた重大な観念や見解とともに一掃され、新しく形成された関係もまた、それがまだ固定されないうちに古臭くなってしまう。堅牢なものはことごとく気化し、神聖なものはことごとく汚され、そして人間は遂に自らの生活状態と、仲間との相互関係を、冷ややかな視線で見つめざるをえなくなる。
The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionising the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society. Conservation of the old modes of production in unaltered form, was, on the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial classes. Constant revolutionising of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.
ブルジョアジーは、その生産物の販路を拓くために絶えず市場を拡大する必要があるがため、地球の全表面に駆り立てられる。ブルジョアジーは到るところに巣をつくり、到るところに住みつき、到るところにその関係性を確立しなければならない。
The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connexions everywhere.
ブルジョアジーは、世界市場の開発を通じて、どの国においても生産および消費に世界主義的性質を与えた。彼らは産業の足元から国家主義的な基盤を取り去り、反動主義者の大いなる悲嘆を招いた。古くからの国家的産業は既に破壊されてしまったか、今まさに破壊され続けている。それに代わる新たな産業を導入することは、すべての文明国にとって死活問題となっている。そして新産業は、もはや国内の原料ではなく、きわめて遠い地方で算出された原料を加工しなければ成り立たない産業であり、その生産物は国内のみならず、世界のあらゆる場所で消費される。かつての、国産品によって満たされていた需要の代わりに、最も遠い地方の産物でなければ充足しない新たな需要が生じている。かつての、局地的で国民的な自給自足と隔離に代わって、あらゆる方面との交易が、諸国民の相互依存の関係が現れている。そして、精神的生産においても、物質的生産と同じことが起きている。個々の国民の知的創造が世界共通の資産となりうる。国民的な一面性や偏狭さを維持することはますます不可能となり、多くの民族文学や地方文学から、単一の世界文学が形成される。
The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilised nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material, but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature.
ブルジョアジーは、すべての生産用具を急速に改善することによって、また交通機関を絶えず進歩させることによって、あらゆる国民を、たとえもっとも野蛮な者たちですらも、文明に引き入れる。彼らはその商品の価格の廉価さを重砲として、中国の城壁をもことごとく破壊した。彼らはまたそれによって、頑固に外国人を憎悪する未開人をも降伏させた。すべての国民は、もし滅亡を欲しないならば、ブルジョアジーの生産方法を採用することを余儀なくされる。いわゆる文明を自国に輸入すること、すなわち自らブルジョアとなることを余儀なくされる。これを一言にすれば、ブルジョアジーは自分の姿に似せて世界を創造するものである。
The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilisation. The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians’ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilisation into their midst, i.e., to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image.
ブルジョアジーは、農村を都市の支配下に従属させた。彼らは巨大な都市を作り出し、都市の人口を農村に比べて著しく増加させた。そして人口の多くの部分を、農村生活の愚昧から掬い出した。彼らは農村を都市に従属させたのと同じように、未開国および非文明国を文明国に、農業国民をブルジョア国民に、東洋を西洋に従属させた。
The bourgeoisie has subjected the country to the rule of the towns. It has created enormous cities, has greatly increased the urban population as compared with the rural, and has thus rescued a considerable part of the population from the idiocy of rural life. Just as it has made the country dependent on the towns, so it has made barbarian and semi-barbarian countries dependent on the civilised ones, nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the East on the West.
ブルジョアジーは、だんだんに生産手段や所有財産、そして人口の分散をなくしていく。人口は集約され、生産手段は集中され、そして財産は少数者の手に集積された。それの必然的な結末が政治上の中央集権であつた。それぞれの利害、法律、政府、税制を有していた、ほとんど単なる連合に過ぎなかった諸州が、ひとつの国民、ひとつの政府、ひとつの法律、ひとつの全国的な階級利害、ひとつの関税政策に押し固められてしまった。
The bourgeoisie keeps more and more doing away with the scattered state of the population, of the means of production, and of property. It has agglomerated population, centralised the means of production, and has concentrated property in a few hands. The necessary consequence of this was political centralisation. Independent, or but loosely connected provinces, with separate interests, laws, governments, and systems of taxation, became lumped together into one nation, with one government, one code of laws, one national class-interest, one frontier, and one customs-tariff.
ブルジョアジーは、僅か百年足らずの階級支配の中で、過去の全時代を合わせたよりもいっそう大量で、いっそう巨大な生産力を現出させた。。自然力の征服、機械、工業や農業における化学の応用、汽船、鉄道、電信、全大陸における開墾、河川航路の開削、呪文によって地下から呼び出されたかのような巨大人口 — これほどの生産力が社会的労働の胎内に眠っていたとは、それより以前のどの世紀で予見し得ただろうか?
The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together. Subjection of Nature’s forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam-navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation, canalisation of rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground — what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labour?
かくして我々は知ることとなる — ブルジョアジーの成長の基礎であった生産手段および交通手段は、既に封建社会の中で形成されていたのである。この生産手段と交通手段の発達のある段階で、封建社会が生産し交換していたその関係、すなわち農業と工業の封建的組織、一言で表現するならば封建的所有関係は、既に発達した生産力にもはや適合しなくなった。それらは生産を促進することなく、却ってそれを妨害することになった。彼らは邪魔物になった。それらは爆破されねばならないものであった。そして爆破された。
We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged, the feudal organisation of agriculture and manufacturing industry, in one word, the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder.
彼らの代りに現はれたものは自由競爭であつた。それと同時に、それに適合する社會的および政治的の組織も起つて來た。ブルジョア階級の經濟的および政治的支配も起つて來た。
Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class.
これと同樣な運動がいま我々の眼前にも行はれてゐる。この偉大な生産および交換機關を呼び出したところの、ブルジョア的の生産および交換關係、すなはちブルジョア的の財産關係、すなはち近代のブルジョア社會は、恰かもあの魔術師が、呪文を唱へて地の底からさまざまの魔物を呼び出しながら、今は既にそれを制御する力を失つたのに似てゐる。この數十年來の工業および商業の歴史は、近代の生産力が、近代の生産關係に對し、ブルジョアジーとその支配との生存條件たる財産關係に對し、叛逆した歴史に過ぎない。その證據としては、かの商業恐慌が、一定の期間を隔ててその襲來を繰返し、その一回ごとにますます甚だしくブルジョア社會の全體の存在を脅威してゐる事實を擧げれば足りる。この商業恐慌の際には、現存の生産物の大部分が定期的に破壞されるばかりでなく、その以前につくられた生産力の大部分もまた同じである。またこの恐慌に際しては、過去のあらゆる時代ならばいかにも不道理と思はれるはずの、一種の社會的流行病、すなはち生産過剩といふ流行病が發生する。そのとき、社會は突如として、一時的の野蠻状態に返つたやうに見える。饑饉が起り、大破壞が起つて、社會一切の生活資料を杜絶したかのやうに見える。工業も商業も悉く破壞されたやうに見える。それは何故か。ほかでもない、社會があまり多くの文明、あまり多くの生活資料、あまり多くの工業、あまり多くの商業をもつたからである。社會の用を務むべき生産力は、もはやブルジョアの財産關係を促進させる役には立たない。否、かへつてその財産關係に對してあまりに有力となり、その財産關係のために妨害を蒙ることになる。そこで生産力がその妨害を突破するたびごとに、ブルジョア社會の全部を無秩序に陷れ、ブルジョア財産の存在を危くするのである。ブルジョアの諸關係は、自分のつくり出した富を包容するのに、あまり狹隘になつて來たのである。しからばブルジョアジーは何によつてこの恐慌を切り拔けるか。一面には生産力の大額を強壓的に破壞し、一面には新市場を征服し、および舊市場の搾取を一そう根本的にやる。さうしてどうなるか。それはすなはち、一そう廣大な、一そう猛烈な恐慌を準備し、恐慌を防遏する手段方法を極度に減少することになる。
A similar movement is going on before our own eyes. Modern bourgeois society, with its relations of production, of exchange and of property, a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells. For many a decade past the history of industry and commerce is but the history of the revolt of modern productive forces against modern conditions of production, against the property relations that are the conditions for the existence of the bourgeois and of its rule. It is enough to mention the commercial crises that by their periodical return put the existence of the entire bourgeois society on its trial, each time more threateningly. In these crises, a great part not only of the existing products, but also of the previously created productive forces, are periodically destroyed. In these crises, there breaks out an epidemic that, in all earlier epochs, would have seemed an absurdity — the epidemic of over-production. Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary barbarism; it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation, had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence; industry and commerce seem to be destroyed; and why? Because there is too much civilisation, too much means of subsistence, too much industry, too much commerce. The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring disorder into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property. The conditions of bourgeois society are too narrow to comprise the wealth created by them. And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises? On the one hand by enforced destruction of a mass of productive forces; on the other, by the conquest of new markets, and by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones. That is to say, by paving the way for more extensive and more destructive crises, and by diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented.
ブルジョアジーが封建制度を顛覆したその武器が、今はブルジョアジー自身に向けられてゐる。
The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism to the ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself.
ただしブルジョアジーは、自分を殺すべき武器を鑄造したばかりでなく、またその武器を使用すべき人物をつくりだした。すなはち近代の勞働者、プロレタリヤがそれである。
But not only has the bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring death to itself; it has also called into existence the men who are to wield those weapons — the modern working class — the proletarians.
かくてブルジョアジー(すなはち資本)が發達すればするほど、その同じ比例をもつて、近代勞働者の階級(すなはちプロレタリヤ階級)が發達した。このプロレタリヤは、仕事を見つけた間だけ生活することが出來、またその勞働が資本を増大する間だけ仕事をもつことが出來る。彼らは自分の身を切賣りにするよりほかないもので、他のあらゆる商品と同じく一個の商品である。從つて競爭上の諸變化と、市場内の諸變動とに曝されるものである。
In proportion as the bourgeoisie, i.e., capital, is developed, in the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working class, developed — a class of labourers, who live only so long as they find work, and who find work only so long as their labour increases capital. These labourers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market.
プロレタリヤの勞働は、機械使用の増大と分業とのために、全くその個人的性質を失ひ、從つてまた勞働者の興味を失つた。すなはちプロレタリヤは單なる機械の附屬物となり、その機械に對して彼の要求されるところは、ただ最も單純な、最も單調な、最も容易に習得される手業である。從つてその勞働者を産出する費用は、ただ僅かにその一身を維持し、およびその種を蕃殖させるに必要なだけの生活資料に制限される。しかるに商品の價格は、從つて勞働の價格も、その生産費と等しいものである。そこで勞働の沒趣味が増加すればするほど、それと同じ程度において賃銀は減少する。それにまた、機械の使用と分業とが増大すればするほど、或ひは勞働時間の延長により、或ひは一定の時間内に要求される勞働の増加により、或ひはまた、機械の運轉力の増加等により、その同じ程度において勞働の總量が増大する。
Owing to the extensive use of machinery, and to the division of labour, the work of the proletarians has lost all individual character, and, consequently, all charm for the workman. He becomes an appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is required of him. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted, almost entirely, to the means of subsistence that he requires for maintenance, and for the propagation of his race. But the price of a commodity, and therefore also of labour, is equal to its cost of production. In proportion, therefore, as the repulsiveness of the work increases, the wage decreases. Nay more, in proportion as the use of machinery and division of labour increases, in the same proportion the burden of toil also increases, whether by prolongation of the working hours, by the increase of the work exacted in a given time or by increased speed of machinery, etc.
近世産業は、族長的な親方の下にあつた小さな職場を、工業資本家の大工場に變更したものである。その工場に詰めこまれる勞働者の群は、軍隊的に編成されてゐる。彼らは産業軍の兵卒として、多數の士官、下士官などを有する完全な統御組織の下におかれてゐる。彼らはブルジョア階級、ブルジョア國家の奴隷であるばかりでなく、機械のために、監督者のために、殊にはその製造家たるブルジョア個人のために、日々刻々、奴隷として使役されてゐる。そしてその專制政治の目的が單に營利であることが明示されればされるほど、その賤しむべく、厭ふべく、憎むべきことが甚だしさを加へて來る。
Modern Industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. Masses of labourers, crowded into the factory, are organised like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the overlooker, and, above all, by the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty, the more hateful and the more embittering it is.
手の勞働が熟練と力とを要することが少くなるに從つて、すなはち近世産業がいよいよ發達するに從つて、男子の勞働が女子と小兒の勞働にとつて代られる。性の差異と年齡の差異とは、勞働階級にとつては、もはや何らの社會的價値をもつてゐない。彼らはみな等しく勞働器具であつて、ただその年齡と性とにより、使用上に費用の多少を生ずるだけである。
The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual labour, in other words, the more modern industry becomes developed, the more is the labour of men superseded by that of women. Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive social validity for the working class. All are instruments of labour, more or less expensive to use, according to their age and sex.
勞働者が、既に製造家から搾取されて、その勞働賃銀を受取ると、今度はブルジョアジーの他の部分、すなはち家主、小賣商人、質屋などが彼に襲ひかかる。
No sooner is the exploitation of the labourer by the manufacturer, so far, at an end, that he receives his wages in cash, than he is set upon by the other portions of the bourgeoisie, the landlord, the shopkeeper, the pawnbroker, etc.
從來の中産階級の下層、すなはち小さい工業者、小商人、および小金持、職人と農夫、すべてこれらの諸階級は漸次プロレタリヤに陷る。その原因の一半は、彼らの小資本が大産業の經營に引き足りないで、より大なる資本家との競爭に負けるからであり、また他の一半は、彼らの專門技術が新しい生産方法に對して無效になるからである。かくてプロレタリヤは國民のあらゆる方面から徴募されてゐる。
The lower strata of the middle class — the small tradespeople, shopkeepers, and retired tradesmen generally, the handicraftsmen and peasants — all these sink gradually into the proletariat, partly because their diminutive capital does not suffice for the scale on which Modern Industry is carried on, and is swamped in the competition with the large capitalists, partly because their specialised skill is rendered worthless by new methods of production. Thus the proletariat is recruited from all classes of the population.
プロレタリアートは種々な發達の段階を經過する。彼らのブルジョアジーに對する戰ひは、その存在とともに始まる。最初は個々の勞働者が、次には一工場内の勞働者が、次には一地方における一勞働部門の勞働者が、直接に彼らを搾取する個々のブルジョアに對して戰ふ。彼らはまだブルジョアの生産關係に對して攻撃を向けるのでなく、生産器具そのものに對して攻撃を向ける。すなはち彼らは外國の競爭品を破壞し、機械を叩きこはし、工場を燒き拂ふ。彼らは既に亡びた中世勞働者の地位を取り戻さうとする。
The proletariat goes through various stages of development. With its birth begins its struggle with the bourgeoisie. At first the contest is carried on by individual labourers, then by the workpeople of a factory, then by the operative of one trade, in one locality, against the individual bourgeois who directly exploits them. They direct their attacks not against the bourgeois conditions of production, but against the instruments of production themselves; they destroy imported wares that compete with their labour, they smash to pieces machinery, they set factories ablaze, they seek to restore by force the vanished status of the workman of the Middle Ages.
この段階にあつては、勞働者はまだ全國に散在して、競爭のために分裂してゐるところの集團である。當時、勞働者が多數團結の實を示した場合があるのは、それはまだ彼ら自身が結合したのではなく、ブルジョアジーの結合した結果である。ブルジョアジーとしては、自分の政治上の目的を達するために、全プロレタリアートを動かす必要があり、そして、一時はそれをなしうるのである。故にこの段階にあつては、プロレタリヤは自分の敵と戰はないで、自分の敵の敵と戰ふ。すなはち專制王國の遺物、大地主、非工業的のブルジョア、小ブルジョアなどと戰ふ。かくて歴史的運動の全部はブルジョアの手に集中され、それによつて獲得されるすべての勝利は、ブルジョアの勝利である。
At this stage, the labourers still form an incoherent mass scattered over the whole country, and broken up by their mutual competition. If anywhere they unite to form more compact bodies, this is not yet the consequence of their own active union, but of the union of the bourgeoisie, which class, in order to attain its own political ends, is compelled to set the whole proletariat in motion, and is moreover yet, for a time, able to do so. At this stage, therefore, the proletarians do not fight their enemies, but the enemies of their enemies, the remnants of absolute monarchy, the landowners, the non-industrial bourgeois, the petty bourgeois. Thus, the whole historical movement is concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie; every victory so obtained is a victory for the bourgeoisie.
しかるに産業の發達とともに、プロレタリヤはその數を増加したばかりでなく、ますます大なる集團に押し堅められ、從つてその力が増大し、また彼らがその力を感知する。機械が次第々々に勞働の差異を消し、殆んど到る處において、賃銀を同一の低い水準に引下げると同時に、プロレタリヤの利害、プロレタリヤの内部における生活状態が次第々々に平均して來る。ブルジョア同志の間におけるますます激烈な競爭、およびそれから生ずる商業恐慌が、いよいよ勞働者の賃銀を動搖させる。不可避の勢ひをもつてますます急激に發達する機械の改善が、いよいよ勞働者の全生活を不安にする。個々の勞働者と個々の資本家との衝突が、次第々々に兩階級の衝突たる性質を餘計に帶びて來る。そこで勞働者は資本家に對して組合をつくりはじめる。彼らは勞働賃銀を維持するために結合する。彼らは臨機の反抗運動のために、かねてその資力を養ふべく、永續的の團體を組織する。それがをりをりは破裂して一揆となる。
But with the development of industry, the proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more. The various interests and conditions of life within the ranks of the proletariat are more and more equalised, in proportion as machinery obliterates all distinctions of labour, and nearly everywhere reduces wages to the same low level. The growing competition among the bourgeois, and the resulting commercial crises, make the wages of the workers ever more fluctuating. The increasing improvement of machinery, ever more rapidly developing, makes their livelihood more and more precarious; the collisions between individual workmen and individual bourgeois take more and more the character of collisions between two classes. Thereupon, the workers begin to form combinations (Trades’ Unions) against the bourgeois; they club together in order to keep up the rate of wages; they found permanent associations in order to make provision beforehand for these occasional revolts. Here and there, the contest breaks out into riots.
勞働者はをりをり勝利を得るが、それはただ一時的に過ぎない。彼らの鬪爭の眞の效力は、その直接の結果にあるのではなく、ただ勞働者の團結が絶えず擴大するところにある。勞働者の團結は、大産業がつくり出した交通機關の發達によつて助長される。交通機關の發達は、諸地方の勞働者をして互ひに聯絡をとらしめる。ただこの聯絡のおかげで、到る處に同性質を有する無數の地方的鬪爭が、一個の全國的鬪爭、一個の階級鬪爭に集中される。そして階級鬪爭は必ず政治的鬪爭である。もしこれが、あの道路の不便な中世の町人であつたなら、かういふ團結のためには數百年を要したであらうに、鐵道のある近代のプロレタリヤは、僅々數年の間にそれを成就したのである。
Now and then the workers are victorious, but only for a time. The real fruit of their battles lies, not in the immediate result, but in the ever expanding union of the workers. This union is helped on by the improved means of communication that are created by modern industry, and that place the workers of different localities in contact with one another. It was just this contact that was needed to centralise the numerous local struggles, all of the same character, into one national struggle between classes. But every class struggle is a political struggle. And that union, to attain which the burghers of the Middle Ages, with their miserable highways, required centuries, the modern proletarian, thanks to railways, achieve in a few years.
プロレタリアートのかういふ階級的組織、從つてまたその政黨組織は、また絶えず勞働者自身の間の競爭のために破壞される。けれども、それは必ずまた勃興して、一そう強く、一そう堅く、一そう有力となる。彼らはブルジョアジーの間における黨爭を利用して、勞働者の特殊の利益に對する立法的認識を強要する。イギリスにおける十時間勞働法のごときがすなはちそれである。
This organisation of the proletarians into a class, and, consequently into a political party, is continually being upset again by the competition between the workers themselves. But it ever rises up again, stronger, firmer, mightier. It compels legislative recognition of particular interests of the workers, by taking advantage of the divisions among the bourgeoisie itself. Thus, the ten-hours’ bill in England was carried.
舊社會における一般の諸衝突は、また種々の點においてプロレタリヤの發達を促す。ブルジョアジーは不斷の鬪爭の中に立つてゐる。初めは貴族と戰ひ、後には産業の進歩と利害を異にする、ブルジョアジー自身の他の部分と戰ひ、また常にあらゆる外國のブルジョアジーと戰ふ。かういふいろいろの鬪爭において、ブルジョアジーはプロレタリヤに訴へ、その助力を借る必要があるので、從つてプロレタリヤを政治運動に引きいれねばならぬことになる。故にブルジョアは自分の教育的要素、すなはち自分と戰ふべき武器をプロレタリヤに供給することになる。
Altogether collisions between the classes of the old society further, in many ways, the course of development of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie finds itself involved in a constant battle. At first with the aristocracy; later on, with those portions of the bourgeoisie itself, whose interests have become antagonistic to the progress of industry; at all time with the bourgeoisie of foreign countries. In all these battles, it sees itself compelled to appeal to the proletariat, to ask for help, and thus, to drag it into the political arena. The bourgeoisie itself, therefore, supplies the proletariat with its own elements of political and general education, in other words, it furnishes the proletariat with weapons for fighting the bourgeoisie.
また、前にいつたとほり、支配階級の一部分が、産業發達のために、擧つてプロレタリヤに落ち込む。或ひは少くとも、その生活條件を脅威される。彼らがまた多量の教育的要素をプロレタリヤに附與する。
Further, as we have already seen, entire sections of the ruling class are, by the advance of industry, precipitated into the proletariat, or are at least threatened in their conditions of existence. These also supply the proletariat with fresh elements of enlightenment and progress.
最後に、この階級鬪爭がいよいよ決戰の時期に近づく時には、支配階級の内部(すなはち舊社會全體の内部)における分解の過程が、すこぶる激烈大膽な性質を帶び、支配階級の一小部分は自らその所屬を脱して、革命階級(すなはち將來をその手の中に握つてゐる階級)に投ずる。故に、むかし貴族の一部分がブルジョアに投じたと同じやうに、今はブルジョアの一部、殊にこの歴史的運動の全體を學理的に理解しうるに至つたところの、思想家的ブルジョアの一部が、プロレタリヤに投ずる。
Finally, in times when the class struggle nears the decisive hour, the progress of dissolution going on within the ruling class, in fact within the whole range of old society, assumes such a violent, glaring character, that a small section of the ruling class cuts itself adrift, and joins the revolutionary class, the class that holds the future in its hands. Just as, therefore, at an earlier period, a section of the nobility went over to the bourgeoisie, so now a portion of the bourgeoisie goes over to the proletariat, and in particular, a portion of the bourgeois ideologists, who have raised themselves to the level of comprehending theoretically the historical movement as a whole.
今日、ブルジョアと對立してゐるすべての階級の中で、ただプロレタリヤのみが眞實の革命階級である。他の諸階級は大産業のために衰頽し、滅亡するものであるが、プロレタリヤはすなはち大産業に特有な産物である。
Of all the classes that stand face to face with the bourgeoisie today, the proletariat alone is a really revolutionary class. The other classes decay and finally disappear in the face of Modern Industry; the proletariat is its special and essential product.
中産階級の下層たる、小製造家、小商人、職人、農夫等もまたみなブルジョアジーと戰ふ。けれどもそれは、中産階級としての滅亡を免れんがために戰ふのである。故に彼らは革命的でなく、保守的である。いなむしろ彼らは反動的である。彼らは歴史の車輪を後ろにまはさうとするものである。もし彼らが革命的であるとすれば、それは彼らがプロレタリヤに落ちこみかけてゐることを悟つたからである。彼らは現在の地位を防衞するのではなく、將來の利益を防衞するのである。すなはち彼らはプロレタリヤの地位に立つために、自分の特殊な地位を棄てるのである。
The lower middle class, the small manufacturer, the shopkeeper, the artisan, the peasant, all these fight against the bourgeoisie, to save from extinction their existence as fractions of the middle class. They are therefore not revolutionary, but conservative. Nay more, they are reactionary, for they try to roll back the wheel of history. If by chance, they are revolutionary, they are only so in view of their impending transfer into the proletariat; they thus defend not their present, but their future interests, they desert their own standpoint to place themselves at that of the proletariat.
ルンペンプロレタリヤ、すなはち舊社會の最下層にある、腐敗墮落した貧民もまた、場合によつてプロレタリヤの革命運動に誘ひ込まれるだらう。けれども彼らの生活状態から見ると、彼らはむしろ喜んで反動的陰謀のために買收されるだらう。
The “dangerous class”, [lumpenproletariat] the social scum, that passively rotting mass thrown off by the lowest layers of the old society, may, here and there, be swept into the movement by a proletarian revolution; its conditions of life, however, prepare it far more for the part of a bribed tool of reactionary intrigue.
舊社會の生活條件は、今は既にプロレタリヤの生活條件の中に滅却されてゐる。プロレタリヤは無財産である。彼らがその妻子に對する關係は、もはやブルジョアの家族關係と少しの共通點をももつてゐない。近世的工業勞働、資本の下における近世的屈從は、イギリスはフランスに同じく、アメリカはドイツに同じく、すべてプロレタリヤからその國民的特徴を剥ぎ去つてゐる。法律、道徳、宗教、彼らにとつてはみな悉くブルジョア的偏見であつて、その背後には必ず、それだけのブルジョア的利益が隱されてゐるのである。
In the condition of the proletariat, those of old society at large are already virtually swamped. The proletarian is without property; his relation to his wife and children has no longer anything in common with the bourgeois family relations; modern industry labour, modern subjection to capital, the same in England as in France, in America as in Germany, has stripped him of every trace of national character. Law, morality, religion, are to him so many bourgeois prejudices, behind which lurk in ambush just as many bourgeois interests.
從來、政權を握つたすべての階級は、全社會を自分らの收益條件に屈從させて、そして自分らの既得の地位を確保しようとした。しかるにプロレタリヤは、從來の自分の所得方法(從つてまた、從來一般の所得方法)を廢止して、初めて社會的生産力を握ることが出來る。プロレタリヤは自分のものとして保護すべきものが一つもない。彼らはただ、あらゆる從來の、私有的保證、私有的保護を破壞すれば足りるのである。
All the preceding classes that got the upper hand sought to fortify their already acquired status by subjecting society at large to their conditions of appropriation. The proletarians cannot become masters of the productive forces of society, except by abolishing their own previous mode of appropriation, and thereby also every other previous mode of appropriation. They have nothing of their own to secure and to fortify; their mission is to destroy all previous securities for, and insurances of, individual property.
從來のすべての運動は、みな少數者の運動、もしくは少數者の利益のためにする運動であつた。プロレタリヤの運動は、大多數の利益のためにする、その大多數の獨立の運動である。しかるに、現社會の最下層たるこのプロレタリヤは、外面の正式社會を構成してゐるところの、上層全部を空中に吹き飛ばさなくては、自立し自營することが出來ないのである。
All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interest of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.
プロレタリアートのブルジョアジーに對するこの鬪爭は、形式上(實質上はさうでないが)、最初は一國的である。各國のプロレタリアートは、必ずまづ、自國のブルジョアジーを處分せねばならぬのである。
Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. The proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie.
我々は今、プロレタリアートの發達について、その最も一般的なる諸段階を叙述し、現社會の内部における、大なり小なり覆面された内亂から、遂にそれが爆破して公然の革命となり、ブルジョアジーを顛覆してプロレタリアートの支配を樹立するところまで到達した。
In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.
從來のすべての社會は、前に述べたとほり、壓伏階級と被壓伏階級との敵對の上に立つてゐた。けれども一階級を壓伏するためには、その階級が少くとも奴隷的存在を續けうるだけの、ある生活條件が保證されてあらねばならぬ。農奴は農奴制の下において、その村邑の公民に立身することが出來たし、小町人はまた、封建的專制政治の抑壓のもとにあつて、ブルジョアになることが出來た。しかるに近世の勞働者は、産業の進歩とともに向上するのではなく、却つて自分の階級の生活條件より以下にだんだん深く沈んで行くのである。すなはち勞働者は貧民となり、貧民は人口と富との増加に比し、一そう急速に發達する。そこでブルジョアジーがなほ永く社會の支配階級となること、そしてその階級の生活條件を定法として社會に強ひることの不適當が明瞭となる。彼らが支配者たるに不適當な所以は、すなはちその奴隷制の内部において、奴隷に生存そのものをすら確保することが出來ないといふ點にある。また彼らが奴隷から養はれるのでなく、却つて奴隷を養はねばならぬほどの境遇に、奴隷を沈ませるのやむなきに至つた點にある。社會はもはやブルジョアジーの下に生活することが出來ない。換言すれば、ブルジョアジーの生活はもはや社會と兩立しえないのである。
Hitherto, every form of society has been based, as we have already seen, on the antagonism of oppressing and oppressed classes. But in order to oppress a class, certain conditions must be assured to it under which it can, at least, continue its slavish existence. The serf, in the period of serfdom, raised himself to membership in the commune, just as the petty bourgeois, under the yoke of the feudal absolutism, managed to develop into a bourgeois. The modern labourer, on the contrary, instead of rising with the process of industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class. He becomes a pauper, and pauperism develops more rapidly than population and wealth. And here it becomes evident, that the bourgeoisie is unfit any longer to be the ruling class in society, and to impose its conditions of existence upon society as an over-riding law. It is unfit to rule because it is incompetent to assure an existence to its slave within his slavery, because it cannot help letting him sink into such a state, that it has to feed him, instead of being fed by him. Society can no longer live under this bourgeoisie, in other words, its existence is no longer compatible with society.
ブルジョア階級の存在、およびその支配權の根本條件は、私人の手の中に富を集積することである、資本の形成および増大である。そして資本の條件は賃銀勞働である。そして賃銀勞働は全く勞働者間の競爭の上に立つてゐる。しかるにブルジョアジーが無意識に、そして無抵抗に促進した産業の進歩は、競爭による勞働者の孤立を改めて、協力による彼らの革命的結合をつくる。だから大産業の發達は、ブルジョアジーが生産をなし、産出物を領有するその基礎自體を、ブルジョアジーの足の下から引き拔くものである。故にブルジョアジーが産出するものは、第一に自分の墓堀り人である。ブルジョアの沒落と、プロレタリヤの勝利とは、共に不可避である。
The essential conditions for the existence and for the sway of the bourgeois class is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for capital is wage-labour. Wage-labour rests exclusively on competition between the labourers. The advance of industry, whose involuntary promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the isolation of the labourers, due to competition, by the revolutionary combination, due to association. The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.
第II章 プロレタリアと共産主義者
Chapter II. Proletarians and Communists
共産主義者は一般のプロレタリヤに對して、どんな關係にあるか。
In what relation do the Communists stand to the proletarians as a whole?
共産主義者は勞働者の諸黨派に反對して、別個の一黨派をつくるものではない。
The Communists do not form a separate party opposed to the other working-class parties.
彼らは全プロレタリヤ階級の利害から分離した、何らの利害をもつものではない。
They have no interests separate and apart from those of the proletariat as a whole.
彼らは特殊の原則を定めて、プロレタリヤの運動をその型に入れようとするものではない。
They do not set up any sectarian principles of their own, by which to shape and mould the proletarian movement.
共産主義者が、プロレタリヤの他の諸黨派と異なるところは、ただこれである。すなはち、一面においては、プロレタリヤの種々なる一國的鬪爭に對して、その國籍から獨立した、全プロレタリヤ階級の共通利益を指示し、標榜する。そして他の一面においては、プロレタリヤとブルジョアジーとの鬪爭が經過する種々なる發展段階に對して、常に運動全體の利益を代表する。
The Communists are distinguished from the other working-class parties by this only: 1. In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. 2. In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole.
故に共産主義者は、一面、實際上には、全世界の勞働諸黨派の中において、最も大膽な、いつでも全黨を推進させる一部分である。そして一面、理論上には、プロレタリヤ運動の條件、進路、およびその總結末に關し、プロレタリヤの他の大部分よりも、一そう明晰な洞察をもつてゐるものである。
The Communists, therefore, are on the one hand, practically, the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country, that section which pushes forward all others; on the other hand, theoretically, they have over the great mass of the proletariat the advantage of clearly understanding the line of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement.
共産主義者の直接の目的は、他のすべてのプロレタリヤ諸黨派のそれと同一である。すなはちプロレタリヤを一階級に結成すること、ブルジョアの支配權を顛覆すること、プロレタリヤの手に政權を握ること。
The immediate aim of the Communists is the same as that of all other proletarian parties: formation of the proletariat into a class, overthrow of the bourgeois supremacy, conquest of political power by the proletariat.
共産主義者の理論的根據は、決して某々社會改良家たちの發明し、もしくは發見した、理想や原理の上に存するものではない。
The theoretical conclusions of the Communists are in no way based on ideas or principles that have been invented, or discovered, by this or that would-be universal reformer.
彼らはただ、現存せる階級鬪爭の實際的諸關係、すなはち我々の眼前に起りつつある歴史的運動の、一般的表現に過ぎない。從來の財産關係を廢絶することは、必ずしも共産主義者の特徴ではない。
They merely express, in general terms, actual relations springing from an existing class struggle, from a historical movement going on under our very eyes. The abolition of existing property relations is not at all a distinctive feature of communism.
あらゆる過去の財産關係は、絶えず歴史的の轉換を受け、また絶えず歴史的の變化を蒙つてゐる。
All property relations in the past have continually been subject to historical change consequent upon the change in historical conditions.
例へばフランス革命は、ブルジョア的財産の便宜のために、封建的財産を廢絶した。
The French Revolution, for example, abolished feudal property in favour of bourgeois property.
故に共産主義の特徴とするところは、一般財産の廢絶ではなく、ただブルジョア財産の廢絶である。しかし近世ブルジョアの私有財産は、階級反目の上に立ち、少數者による多數者の搾取の上に立つところの、生産および生産物領有方法の、最後にしてかつ最も完全なる表現である。
The distinguishing feature of Communism is not the abolition of property generally, but the abolition of bourgeois property. But modern bourgeois private property is the final and most complete expression of the system of producing and appropriating products, that is based on class antagonisms, on the exploitation of the many by the few.
この意味において、共産主義者はその理論を一言に約することが出來る。いはく、私有財産の廢絶。
In this sense, the theory of the Communists may be summed up in the single sentence: Abolition of private property.
世人は我々共産主義者を非難していふ。共産主義者は、人が自己の勞働によつて獲得したところの個人的財産を廢絶しようとする。すなはちあらゆる個人的の自由、活動、および獨立の根底たる財産を廢絶しようとする、と。
We Communists have been reproached with the desire of abolishing the right of personally acquiring property as the fruit of a man’s own labour, which property is alleged to be the groundwork of all personal freedom, activity and independence.
自己の勞働によつて、自己の獲得した、自己の儲けだした財産といふのか。それはブルジョア財産の以前にあつた、職人の財産、農夫の財産のことをいふのか、それならば我々が廢絶するには及ばない。産業の發達が既にそれを廢絶し、なほ日々廢絶しつつある。
Hard-won, self-acquired, self-earned property! Do you mean the property of petty artisan and of the small peasant, a form of property that preceded the bourgeois form? There is no need to abolish that; the development of industry has to a great extent already destroyed it, and is still destroying it daily.
それとも彼らは、近世のブルジョア的私有財産のことをいふのか。
Or do you mean the modern bourgeois private property?
しかし、賃銀勞働(すなはちプロレタリヤの勞働)は勞働者のために財産をつくるのか。決してつくらない。それはただ資本をつくる。資本は賃銀勞働を搾取する財産である。そしてそれが更に賃銀勞働をつくり、更にそれを搾取するといふ條件の下においてのみ、増大しうるところの財産である。現今の形態における財産は、資本と賃銀勞働との對立の中に生存してゐる。我々をしてこの對立の兩面を檢せしめよ。
But does wage-labour create any property for the labourer? Not a bit. It creates capital, i.e., that kind of property which exploits wage-labour, and which cannot increase except upon condition of begetting a new supply of wage-labour for fresh exploitation. Property, in its present form, is based on the antagonism of capital and wage labour. Let us examine both sides of this antagonism.
資本家たることは、生産界において、單純なる個人的地位をもつばかりでなく、また一の社會的地位をもつことである。資本は協力的産物である。多數部員の共同作業によつてのみ、いな、それを究極すれば、社會全員の共同作業によつてのみ働かされうるものである。
To be a capitalist, is to have not only a purely personal, but a social status in production. Capital is a collective product, and only by the united action of many members, nay, in the last resort, only by the united action of all members of society, can it be set in motion.
故に資本は決して個人的の力でなく、一つの社會力である。
Capital is therefore not only personal; it is a social power.
故に資本が共有財産(すなはち社會全員の財産)に變更される場合、それは個人的財産が社會的財産に變更されるのではない。ただその財産の社會的特質が變更されるのである。すなはち財産の階級的性質が失はれるのである。
When, therefore, capital is converted into common property, into the property of all members of society, personal property is not thereby transformed into social property. It is only the social character of the property that is changed. It loses its class character.
次に賃銀勞働を檢せしめよ。
Let us now take wage-labour.
賃銀勞働の平均價格は、勞働賃銀の最低である。すなはち、勞働者が勞働者としての生命を保つに必要なだけの生活資料の額である。故に賃銀勞働者が自分の勞働によつて獲得するところは、ただその赤貧の生活を再製するに足るだけのものである。我々は決して、この直接な生命の再製のためにする、勞働産物の個人的所得を廢絶しようとするのではない。すなはち他の勞働を支配すべき何らの餘剩を生じないところの、この所得を廢絶しようとするのではない。我々はただこの所得の悲慘な性質、すなはち勞働者が資本を増大するためにのみ生活し、支配階級の利益がそれを要求する間だけ生活しうるといふ、その悲慘な性質をなくしようとするのである。
The average price of wage-labour is the minimum wage, i.e., that quantum of the means of subsistence which is absolutely requisite to keep the labourer in bare existence as a labourer. What, therefore, the wage-labourer appropriates by means of his labour, merely suffices to prolong and reproduce a bare existence. We by no means intend to abolish this personal appropriation of the products of labour, an appropriation that is made for the maintenance and reproduction of human life, and that leaves no surplus wherewith to command the labour of others. All that we want to do away with is the miserable character of this appropriation, under which the labourer lives merely to increase capital, and is allowed to live only in so far as the interest of the ruling class requires it.
ブルジョアの社會にあつては、生きた勞働者は、ただ、集積された勞働を増大する一つの手段になる。共産主義の社會にあつては、集積された勞働が、ただ勞働者の生活を擴大し、豐富にし、増進させる手段になる。
In bourgeois society, living labour is but a means to increase accumulated labour. In Communist society, accumulated labour is but a means to widen, to enrich, to promote the existence of the labourer.
故にブルジョアの社會にあつては、過去が現在を支配し、共産主義の社會にあつては、現在が過去を支配する。ブルジョアの社會にあつては、資本は獨立的であり、個性的であるのに、生きた人間は從屬的であり、非個性的である。
In bourgeois society, therefore, the past dominates the present; in Communist society, the present dominates the past. In bourgeois society capital is independent and has individuality, while the living person is dependent and has no individuality.
しかるにブルジョアジーは、かういふ諸關係の廢絶を目して、個性の廢絶! 自由の廢絶! といふのである。しかし無理もない。これはいかにも、ブルジョアの個性、ブルジョアの獨立、ブルジョアの自由の廢絶なのである。
And the abolition of this state of things is called by the bourgeois, abolition of individuality and freedom! And rightly so. The abolition of bourgeois individuality, bourgeois independence, and bourgeois freedom is undoubtedly aimed at.
現在のブルジョア的生産關係の下にあつては、自由とはただ自由貿易を意味し、自由賣買を意味してゐる。
By freedom is meant, under the present bourgeois conditions of production, free trade, free selling and buying.
しかし賣買といふことがなくなれば、自由賣買もなくなつてしまふ。一體、ブルジョアの自由賣買といふこと、およびその他一切の自由よばはりは、中世時代の制限された賣買、束縛された商人に對してこそ意義もあるが、共産主義が主張する賣買の廢絶、ブルジョア的生産關係の廢絶、およびブルジョアジーそのものの廢絶に對しては、何らの意義もないものである。
But if selling and buying disappears, free selling and buying disappears also. This talk about free selling and buying, and all the other “brave words” of our bourgeois about freedom in general, have a meaning, if any, only in contrast with restricted selling and buying, with the fettered traders of the Middle Ages, but have no meaning when opposed to the Communistic abolition of buying and selling, of the bourgeois conditions of production, and of the bourgeoisie itself.
諸君は、我々が私有財産を廢絶しようといふのに驚いてゐる。しかし諸君のこの現在の社會において、人口の十分の九は既に私有財産を失つてゐるではないか。そしてそれが(少數者のために)存在してゐるのは、實にそれがその十分の九のために存在してゐないからではないか。故に諸君が我々を非難する、その財産の廢絶といふのは、社會全員の大々多數の無財産を必要條件とする、その財産の廢絶なのである。
You are horrified at our intending to do away with private property. But in your existing society, private property is already done away with for nine-tenths of the population; its existence for the few is solely due to its non-existence in the hands of those nine-tenths. You reproach us, therefore, with intending to do away with a form of property, the necessary condition for whose existence is the non-existence of any property for the immense majority of society.
要するに諸君は、我々が諸君の財産を廢絶しようとするのを非難するのである。いかにも我々はそれを欲するのである。
In one word, you reproach us with intending to do away with your property. Precisely so; that is just what we intend.
諸君は、勞働がもはや資本に變ぜず、貨幣に變ぜず、地代に變ぜず、つまり獨占的社會力に變じえないことになるその瞬間から、すなはち個人的財産がもはや、ブルジョア的財産に變形しえないことになるその瞬間から、諸君は個性が廢絶されるといふのである。
From the moment when labour can no longer be converted into capital, money, or rent, into a social power capable of being monopolised, i.e., from the moment when individual property can no longer be transformed into bourgeois property, into capital, from that moment, you say, individuality vanishes.
故に諸君は白状してゐるのである。諸君のいはゆる個性とは、ブルジョア以外の、ブルジョア的財産所有者以外の、何ものをも意味してゐないのである。そして、それらの個性はもとより廢絶すべきである。
You must, therefore, confess that by “individual” you mean no other person than the bourgeois, than the middle-class owner of property. This person must, indeed, be swept out of the way, and made impossible.
共産主義は誰人に對しても、社會的産物を獲得する力を奪ふものではない。ただその獲得によつて、他の勞働を屈服させる、その力を奪ふのである。
Communism deprives no man of the power to appropriate the products of society; all that it does is to deprive him of the power to subjugate the labour of others by means of such appropriations.
ある者は反對していふ。私有財産が廢絶されるなら、それとともに一切の活動が廢絶され、從つて一般的怠惰に陷るであらう、と。
It has been objected that upon the abolition of private property, all work will cease, and universal laziness will overtake us.
もしさうとするなら、ブルジョア社會は疾くの昔、怠惰のために滅亡してゐるはずである。ブルジョア社會では、働く者は儲からないし、儲ける者は働かないではないか。だからこの反對論は結局、資本がなくなれば賃銀勞働がなくなるといふ、分かりきつた重複語を、別の意味で使つたに過ぎない。
According to this, bourgeois society ought long ago to have gone to the dogs through sheer idleness; for those of its members who work, acquire nothing, and those who acquire anything do not work. The whole of this objection is but another expression of the tautology: that there can no longer be any wage-labour when there is no longer any capital.
物質的産物に對する、共産主義的の獲得方法および生産方法に向けられたすべての攻撃は、更に精神的産物の獲得および生産にまで延長されてゐる。階級的財産の廢絶が、ブルジョアにとつて、生産そのものの廢絶であるのと同じく、階級的文化の廢絶は、彼らにとつて一般文化の廢絶と同意義である。
All objections urged against the Communistic mode of producing and appropriating material products, have, in the same way, been urged against the Communistic mode of producing and appropriating intellectual products. Just as, to the bourgeois, the disappearance of class property is the disappearance of production itself, so the disappearance of class culture is to him identical with the disappearance of all culture.
彼らがしかくその消滅を悲しんでゐる、その文化なるものは、大々多數の人にとつては、ただ機械として働くことの教育である。
That culture, the loss of which he laments, is, for the enormous majority, a mere training to act as a machine.
しかし諸君が、自由、文化、權利等に關する諸君のブルジョア的見解を標準として、ブルジョア財産の廢絶を律しようとする間は、論爭は無益である。諸君の思想そのものは、ブルジョア的の生産關係および財産關係の産物である。それと同じく、諸君の權利もまた、諸君の階級的意志を法律としたものに過ぎない。そしてその意志の内容は、諸君の階級の物質的生活條件から生じたものに過ぎない。
But don’t wrangle with us so long as you apply, to our intended abolition of bourgeois property, the standard of your bourgeois notions of freedom, culture, law, &c. Your very ideas are but the outgrowth of the conditions of your bourgeois production and bourgeois property, just as your jurisprudence is but the will of your class made into a law for all, a will whose essential character and direction are determined by the economical conditions of existence of your class.
諸君の利己的謬想――すなはち諸君の生産關係および財産關係は、生産の進歩に從つて生滅する歴史的關係であるのに、それを永劫の自然法および道理法に變更させる――その諸君の利己的謬想は、すべての滅亡した過去の支配階級が、みな諸君と同じくもつてゐたものである。諸君が古代の財産に對して理解したところ、また封建的財産に對して理解したところのものを、諸君はいま、ブルジョア的財産に對しては理解しようとしないのである。
The selfish misconception that induces you to transform into eternal laws of nature and of reason, the social forms springing from your present mode of production and form of property – historical relations that rise and disappear in the progress of production – this misconception you share with every ruling class that has preceded you. What you see clearly in the case of ancient property, what you admit in the case of feudal property, you are of course forbidden to admit in the case of your own bourgeois form of property.
家族制の廢絶! 共産主義者のこの不名譽な提案に對しては、最急進派の人々すらも憤激する。
Abolition [Aufhebung] of the family! Even the most radical flare up at this infamous proposal of the Communists.
しかし、現在の家族制度、ブルジョアの家族制度はいかなる基礎の上に立つてゐるか。資本の上、私收入の上に立つてゐる。完全に發達したこの家族制度は、ただブルジョアジーの間にのみ存在してゐる。そしてプロレタリヤの強制的無家庭と、公娼制度とが、その補足物になつてゐる。
On what foundation is the present family, the bourgeois family, based? On capital, on private gain. In its completely developed form, this family exists only among the bourgeoisie. But this state of things finds its complement in the practical absence of the family among the proletarians, and in public prostitution.
ブルジョアの家族制は、もとよりこの補足物の消失とともに消失する。そして兩者とも、資本の消失とともに消失する。
The bourgeois family will vanish as a matter of course when its complement vanishes, and both will vanish with the vanishing of capital.
諸君はまた、子供に對する親の搾取を廢絶するものとして、我々を攻撃するか。我々は甘んじてその罪人たることを自認する。
Do you charge us with wanting to stop the exploitation of children by their parents? To this crime we plead guilty.
しかし(と諸君はいふだらう)、家庭教育を廢して社會教育をそれに代へるのは、最も神聖なる家族關係を廢絶するものである、と。
But, you say, we destroy the most hallowed of relations, when we replace home education by social.
ところが、諸君の教育もやはり社會によつて決定されるのではないか。諸君が教育を施すその社會的諸關係によつて決定されるのではないか。學校などを通じて、直接間接に行はれる社會の干渉によつて決定されるのではないか。共産主義者は、教育に對する社會の影響を發明したのではない。彼らはただその影響の性質を變じて、教育をして支配階級の勢力から脱出させようとするのである。
And your education! Is not that also social, and determined by the social conditions under which you educate, by the intervention direct or indirect, of society, by means of schools, &c.? The Communists have not invented the intervention of society in education; they do but seek to alter the character of that intervention, and to rescue education from the influence of the ruling class.
家族制度や教育のことについて、また親子の間の神聖な關係などといふことについて、ブルジョアがこんないひわけをしてゐるとき、大産業の結果として、プロレタリヤの家族關係がだんだんに破壞され、その小兒たちが單純な商品と勞働器械とに變形されて行くのを見ると、我々は實に嘔吐を催すの感がある。
The bourgeois clap-trap about the family and education, about the hallowed co-relation of parents and child, becomes all the more disgusting, the more, by the action of Modern Industry, all the family ties among the proletarians are torn asunder, and their children transformed into simple articles of commerce and instruments of labour.
だつて君ら共産主義者は、婦人の共有を行はうとしてゐるのぢやないかと、全ブルジョアジーが我々に向つて合唱的に絶叫する。
But you Communists would introduce community of women, screams the bourgeoisie in chorus.
しかしなんにしろ、わがブルジョア諸君が、そのいはゆる共産主義者の婦人共有制に對して、道徳的義憤を發したことほど笑ふべきものはない。共産主義者は婦人共有制を創設する必要がない。それは疾くの昔から存在してゐるではないか。
The bourgeois sees his wife a mere instrument of production. He hears that the instruments of production are to be exploited in common, and, naturally, can come to no other conclusion that the lot of being common to all will likewise fall to the women.
ブルジョアは自分の妻を單なる生産器具と考へてゐる。そして生産器具がみな共同に利用されると聞いたのだから、その共同利用の運命が、やはり婦人の上にも來るものとしか考へられないのは、無理もない話である。
He has not even a suspicion that the real point aimed at is to do away with the status of women as mere instruments of production.
共産主義者の目的とするところは、さういふ單なる生産器具としての婦人の地位を、廢絶しようとするにあるのだなどとは、彼らが思ひもそめないことである。
For the rest, nothing is more ridiculous than the virtuous indignation of our bourgeois at the community of women which, they pretend, is to be openly and officially established by the Communists. The Communists have no need to introduce community of women; it has existed almost from time immemorial.
わがブルジョア諸君は、公娼のことはしばらくいはぬとしても、プロレタリヤの妻や娘を勝手にして、それでもなほ滿足が出來ないで、更に自分らの妻を互ひに誘惑することを無上の快樂としてゐるではないか。
Our bourgeois, not content with having wives and daughters of their proletarians at their disposal, not to speak of common prostitutes, take the greatest pleasure in seducing each other’s wives.
ブルジョアの結婚は、その實質上、まさに妻女共有制である。さすれば、彼らが共産主義者に對して加へうる攻撃は、僞善的に隱蔽されてゐる婦人共有制の代りに、公然たる正式の婦人共有制を設けようとするからいけない、といふのがせいぜいである。なほいふまでもないことだが、現今の生産關係を廢絶すれば、それとともに、その關係から生じた婦人共有制、すなはち公私の賣淫制度が、みな消滅するのである。
Bourgeois marriage is, in reality, a system of wives in common and thus, at the most, what the Communists might possibly be reproached with is that they desire to introduce, in substitution for a hypocritically concealed, an openly legalised community of women. For the rest, it is self-evident that the abolition of the present system of production must bring with it the abolition of the community of women springing from that system, i.e., of prostitution both public and private.
共産主義者は更に、祖國を廢絶し、國民性を廢するものとして攻撃されてゐる。
The Communists are further reproached with desiring to abolish countries and nationality.
勞働者は祖國をもつてゐない。その人のもつてゐないものをその人から取ることは出來ない。プロレタリヤはまづ政權を握らねばならぬ、國民的の階級たる地位に登らねばならぬ、自己を國民として結成せねばならぬ。であるから、その意味において、ブルジョアジーの意味とは全く違ふが、やはり國民的である。
The working men have no country. We cannot take from them what they have not got. Since the proletariat must first of all acquire political supremacy, must rise to be the leading class of the nation, must constitute itself the nation, it is so far, itself national, though not in the bourgeois sense of the word.
國家間の差別、および人種間の反目は、ブルジョアジーの發達のために、通商の自由のために、世界市場のために、生産方式およびそれに相應する生活關係の同一化のために、もはやだんだん消滅しつつある。
National differences and antagonism between peoples are daily more and more vanishing, owing to the development of the bourgeoisie, to freedom of commerce, to the world market, to uniformity in the mode of production and in the conditions of life corresponding thereto.
プロレタリヤの政治は一そう多くそれを消滅させるであらう。少くとも文明諸國間だけの團結した行動が、プロレタリヤ解放の最大條件の一つである。
The supremacy of the proletariat will cause them to vanish still faster. United action, of the leading civilised countries at least, is one of the first conditions for the emancipation of the proletariat.
一個人が他個人を搾取することが止めば、それと同じ比例において、一國民が他國民を搾取することも止むであらう。一國の内部における階級對立がなくなれば、國と國との間の敵視もまたなくなるであらう。
In proportion as the exploitation of one individual by another will also be put an end to, the exploitation of one nation by another will also be put an end to. In proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end.
宗教的、哲學的、および一般理想的見地からの共産主義に對する攻撃は、大して本氣に論究するだけの價値がない。
The charges against Communism made from a religious, a philosophical and, generally, from an ideological standpoint, are not deserving of serious examination.
人間の生活上の諸關係とともに、その社會的諸關係とともに、その社會的生活とともに、その思想、觀念、および見解、一言にすれば、その自覺もまた變化するといふことを理解するのに、そんなに深い洞察力がいるだらうか。
Does it require deep intuition to comprehend that man’s ideas, views, and conception, in one word, man’s consciousness, changes with every change in the conditions of his material existence, in his social relations and in his social life?
古來、思想の歴史が示してゐるところのものは、精神的生産が物質的生産とともに變質するといふことよりほかにないではないか。ある時代を支配する思想は、いつでもただその支配階級の思想であつた。
What else does the history of ideas prove, than that intellectual production changes its character in proportion as material production is changed? The ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling class.
ある思想が全社會を革命したといふことがある。それはただ、舊社會の内部に、新社會の要素が發育したといふ事實、古い生活關係の解體とともに、古い思想の解體が同一の歩調をとつたといふ事實を指すに過ぎない。
When people speak of the ideas that revolutionise society, they do but express that fact that within the old society the elements of a new one have been created, and that the dissolution of the old ideas keeps even pace with the dissolution of the old conditions of existence.
上古の世界が滅亡に瀕したとき、古い諸宗教はみな、キリスト教に征服された。十八世紀に、キリスト教の思想が啓蒙思想(合理思想)に壓せられたとき、封建社會は當時の革命的ブルジョアジーと致命戰をやつてゐた。良心の自由、および信仰の自由といふ思想は、ただ自由競爭の優勝を知識界について言明したに過ぎない。
When the ancient world was in its last throes, the ancient religions were overcome by Christianity. When Christian ideas succumbed in the 18th century to rationalist ideas, feudal society fought its death battle with the then revolutionary bourgeoisie. The ideas of religious liberty and freedom of conscience merely gave expression to the sway of free competition within the domain of knowledge.
『けれども』と誰かがいふだらう。『宗教的、道徳的、哲學的、政治的、法律的の諸思想は、いかにも歴史發展の道程において變化したに相違ないが、宗教、道徳、哲學、政治、法律は、常にその變化の間に嚴存した。』
“Undoubtedly,” it will be said, “religious, moral, philosophical, and juridical ideas have been modified in the course of historical development. But religion, morality, philosophy, political science, and law, constantly survived this change.”
『それにまた、自由、正義などといふ、あらゆる社會状態に共通する、永劫の眞理がある。しかるに共産主義は、その永劫の眞理を廢絶する。宗教、道徳を改新するのではなく、全くそれを廢絶する。だから共産主義は、あらゆる過去の歴史發展と矛盾する。』
“There are, besides, eternal truths, such as Freedom, Justice, etc., that are common to all states of society. But Communism abolishes eternal truths, it abolishes all religion, and all morality, instead of constituting them on a new basis; it therefore acts in contradiction to all past historical experience.”
この難詰は一體どういふことに歸着するか。あらゆる過去の社會の歴史は、階級對立の中に發展してゐる。そしてその階級對立は、時代々々に從つてその形態を異にしてゐる。
What does this accusation reduce itself to? The history of all past society has consisted in the development of class antagonisms, antagonisms that assumed different forms at different epochs.
しかしその形態はいかにもあれ、社會の一部分が他部分を搾取するといふ一點は、すべての過去の諸時代に共通な事實である。從つて、すべての時代の社會的自覺(社會意識)が、その表現の多種多樣なるにかかはらず、ある共通の形式をもつて働くのは、當り前のことである。そしてその自覺形式は、階級對立の全き消滅とともに、初めて完全に解體すべきものである。
But whatever form they may have taken, one fact is common to all past ages, viz., the exploitation of one part of society by the other. No wonder, then, that the social consciousness of past ages, despite all the multiplicity and variety it displays, moves within certain common forms, or general ideas, which cannot completely vanish except with the total disappearance of class antagonisms.
共産主義の革命は、傳來の財産關係に對する根本的の分離である。從つてその發展の過程において、傳來の思想と根本的に分離するのは、當り前である。
The Communist revolution is the most radical rupture with traditional property relations; no wonder that its development involved the most radical rupture with traditional ideas.
しかし、共産主義に對するブルジョアの非難は、もうこれで棄ておくことにしよう。
But let us have done with the bourgeois objections to Communism.
我々は既に以上において、勞働者革命の第一歩が、プロレタリヤを支配階級の地位に上げることにあるを見た。すなはち、デモクラシーの戰勝にあるを見た。
We have seen above, that the first step in the revolution by the working class is to raise the proletariat to the position of ruling class to win the battle of democracy.
プロレタリヤはその政治的支配權を利用して、漸々にブルジョアから一切の資本を捩ぢ取るであらう。一切の生産機關を國家の手に、すなはち支配階級として結成されたプロレタリヤの手に、集中するであらう。そして生産力の總量を出來うるかぎり急速に増大するであらう。
The proletariat will use its political supremacy to wrest, by degree, all capital from the bourgeoisie, to centralise all instruments of production in the hands of the State, i.e., of the proletariat organised as the ruling class; and to increase the total productive forces as rapidly as possible.
もちろん、最初は、財産權に對する、およびブルジョア的生産關係に對する、壓制的侵害によらなければ、右のことは行はれえないであらう。從つてその方策は、經濟上、不徹底であり薄弱であるかに見える。しかしそれが運動の進行につれて、自然に元の埒外に跳り出でる。そしてそれが生産方法の全體を變革する手段として、避くべからざる方策となる。
Of course, in the beginning, this cannot be effected except by means of despotic inroads on the rights of property, and on the conditions of bourgeois production; by means of measures, therefore, which appear economically insufficient and untenable, but which, in the course of the movement, outstrip themselves, necessitate further inroads upon the old social order, and are unavoidable as a means of entirely revolutionising the mode of production.
もつともこの方策は、それぞれの國情に從つて、それぞれの差異を呈するであらう。
These measures will, of course, be different in different countries.
しかし最も進歩した諸國にあつては、左の諸方策が大抵一般に行使されうるであらう。
Nevertheless, in most advanced countries, the following will be pretty generally applicable.
- 土地所有權の剥奪、および地代を國家の經費に充てること。
- 強度の累進所得税。
- 相續權の廢止。
- すべての移出民および反逆者の財産の沒收。
- 國家の資本をもつて全然獨占的なる國立銀行をつくり、信用機關を國家の手に集中すること。
- 交通および運輸機關を國家の手に集中すること。
- 國有工場の増大、國有生産機關の増大、共同的設計による土地の開墾および改善。
- すべての人に對して平等の勞働義務を課すること。産業軍隊を編成すること。(殊に農業に對して)。
- 農業と工業との經營を結合すること。都會と地方との區別を漸々に廢すること。
- すべての兒童の公共無料教育。現今の形式における兒童の工場勞働の廢止。工業生産と教育との結合等。
- Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.
- A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.
- Abolition of all rights of inheritance.
- Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.
- Centralisation of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly.
- Centralisation of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State.
- Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan.
- Equal liability of all to work. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture.
- Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of all the distinction between town and country by a more equable distribution of the populace over the country.
- Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children’s factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production, &c, &c.
かくて、發達の進行につれ、階級的差別が消滅し、すべての生産が、總個人の協力(全國民の大組合)の手に集中されるならば、そのとき公的權力はその政治的性質を失ふ。元來、政治的權力なるものは、一階級が他階級を壓伏するための組織的強力である。プロレタリヤはブルジョアジーに對する戰鬪の必要上、自ら一階級を形成し、革命によつて自ら支配階級となり、そして支配階級として強制的に古い生産關係を廢絶するのであるが、その生産關係の廢絶とともに、階級對立の存在條件を廢絶し、階級全體を廢絶し、從つてまた、自らの階級的支配權をも廢絶するのである。
When, in the course of development, class distinctions have disappeared, and all production has been concentrated in the hands of a vast association of the whole nation, the public power will lose its political character. Political power, properly so called, is merely the organised power of one class for oppressing another. If the proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled, by the force of circumstances, to organise itself as a class, if, by means of a revolution, it makes itself the ruling class, and, as such, sweeps away by force the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class.
かくていよいよ、古いブルジョア社會(およびその諸階級と階級對立と)の代りに、各人の自由な發達が衆人の自由な發達の條件となるやうな、協力社會が生ずるのである。
In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.
Chapter III. Socialist and Communist Literature
1. Reactionary Socialism
A. Feudal Socialism
Owing to their historical position, it became the vocation of the aristocracies of France and England to write pamphlets against modern bourgeois society. In the French Revolution of July 1830, and in the English reform agitation[A], these aristocracies again succumbed to the hateful upstart. Thenceforth, a serious political struggle was altogether out of the question. A literary battle alone remained possible. But even in the domain of literature the old cries of the restoration period had become impossible.9
In order to arouse sympathy, the aristocracy was obliged to lose sight, apparently, of its own interests, and to formulate their indictment against the bourgeoisie in the interest of the exploited working class alone. Thus, the aristocracy took their revenge by singing lampoons on their new masters and whispering in his ears sinister prophesies of coming catastrophe.
In this way arose feudal Socialism: half lamentation, half lampoon; half an echo of the past, half menace of the future; at times, by its bitter, witty and incisive criticism, striking the bourgeoisie to the very heart’s core; but always ludicrous in its effect, through total incapacity to comprehend the march of modern history.
The aristocracy, in order to rally the people to them, waved the proletarian alms-bag in front for a banner. But the people, so often as it joined them, saw on their hindquarters the old feudal coats of arms, and deserted with loud and irreverent laughter.
One section of the French Legitimists and “Young England” exhibited this spectacle.
In pointing out that their mode of exploitation was different to that of the bourgeoisie, the feudalists forget that they exploited under circumstances and conditions that were quite different and that are now antiquated. In showing that, under their rule, the modern proletariat never existed, they forget that the modern bourgeoisie is the necessary offspring of their own form of society.
For the rest, so little do they conceal the reactionary character of their criticism that their chief accusation against the bourgeois amounts to this, that under the bourgeois régime a class is being developed which is destined to cut up root and branch the old order of society.
What they upbraid the bourgeoisie with is not so much that it creates a proletariat as that it creates a revolutionary proletariat.
In political practice, therefore, they join in all coercive measures against the working class; and in ordinary life, despite their high-falutin phrases, they stoop to pick up the golden apples dropped from the tree of industry, and to barter truth, love, and honour, for traffic in wool, beetroot-sugar, and potato spirits.10
As the parson has ever gone hand in hand with the landlord, so has Clerical Socialism with Feudal Socialism.
Nothing is easier than to give Christian asceticism a Socialist tinge. Has not Christianity declaimed against private property, against marriage, against the State? Has it not preached in the place of these, charity and poverty, celibacy and mortification of the flesh, monastic life and Mother Church? Christian Socialism is but the holy water with which the priest consecrates the heart-burnings of the aristocrat.
B. Petty-Bourgeois Socialism
The feudal aristocracy was not the only class that was ruined by the bourgeoisie, not the only class whose conditions of existence pined and perished in the atmosphere of modern bourgeois society. The medieval burgesses and the small peasant proprietors were the precursors of the modern bourgeoisie. In those countries which are but little developed, industrially and commercially, these two classes still vegetate side by side with the rising bourgeoisie.
In countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, a new class of petty bourgeois has been formed, fluctuating between proletariat and bourgeoisie, and ever renewing itself as a supplementary part of bourgeois society. The individual members of this class, however, are being constantly hurled down into the proletariat by the action of competition, and, as modern industry develops, they even see the moment approaching when they will completely disappear as an independent section of modern society, to be replaced in manufactures, agriculture and commerce, by overlookers, bailiffs and shopmen.
In countries like France, where the peasants constitute far more than half of the population, it was natural that writers who sided with the proletariat against the bourgeoisie should use, in their criticism of the bourgeois régime, the standard of the peasant and petty bourgeois, and from the standpoint of these intermediate classes, should take up the cudgels for the working class. Thus arose petty-bourgeois Socialism. Sismondi was the head of this school, not only in France but also in England.
This school of Socialism dissected with great acuteness the contradictions in the conditions of modern production. It laid bare the hypocritical apologies of economists. It proved, incontrovertibly, the disastrous effects of machinery and division of labour; the concentration of capital and land in a few hands; overproduction and crises; it pointed out the inevitable ruin of the petty bourgeois and peasant, the misery of the proletariat, the anarchy in production, the crying inequalities in the distribution of wealth, the industrial war of extermination between nations, the dissolution of old moral bonds, of the old family relations, of the old nationalities.
In its positive aims, however, this form of Socialism aspires either to restoring the old means of production and of exchange, and with them the old property relations, and the old society, or to cramping the modern means of production and of exchange within the framework of the old property relations that have been, and were bound to be, exploded by those means. In either case, it is both reactionary and Utopian.
Its last words are: corporate guilds for manufacture; patriarchal relations in agriculture.
Ultimately, when stubborn historical facts had dispersed all intoxicating effects of self-deception, this form of Socialism ended in a miserable fit of the blues.
C. German or “True” Socialism
The Socialist and Communist literature of France, a literature that originated under the pressure of a bourgeoisie in power, and that was the expressions of the struggle against this power, was introduced into Germany at a time when the bourgeoisie, in that country, had just begun its contest with feudal absolutism.
German philosophers, would-be philosophers, and beaux esprits (men of letters), eagerly seized on this literature, only forgetting, that when these writings immigrated from France into Germany, French social conditions had not immigrated along with them. In contact with German social conditions, this French literature lost all its immediate practical significance and assumed a purely literary aspect. Thus, to the German philosophers of the Eighteenth Century, the demands of the first French Revolution were nothing more than the demands of “Practical Reason” in general, and the utterance of the will of the revolutionary French bourgeoisie signified, in their eyes, the laws of pure Will, of Will as it was bound to be, of true human Will generally.
The work of the German literati consisted solely in bringing the new French ideas into harmony with their ancient philosophical conscience, or rather, in annexing the French ideas without deserting their own philosophic point of view.
This annexation took place in the same way in which a foreign language is appropriated, namely, by translation.
It is well known how the monks wrote silly lives of Catholic Saints over the manuscripts on which the classical works of ancient heathendom had been written. The German literati reversed this process with the profane French literature. They wrote their philosophical nonsense beneath the French original. For instance, beneath the French criticism of the economic functions of money, they wrote “Alienation of Humanity”, and beneath the French criticism of the bourgeois state they wrote “Dethronement of the Category of the General”, and so forth.
The introduction of these philosophical phrases at the back of the French historical criticisms, they dubbed “Philosophy of Action”, “True Socialism”, “German Science of Socialism”, “Philosophical Foundation of Socialism”, and so on.
The French Socialist and Communist literature was thus completely emasculated. And, since it ceased in the hands of the German to express the struggle of one class with the other, he felt conscious of having overcome “French one-sidedness” and of representing, not true requirements, but the requirements of Truth; not the interests of the proletariat, but the interests of Human Nature, of Man in general, who belongs to no class, has no reality, who exists only in the misty realm of philosophical fantasy.
This German socialism, which took its schoolboy task so seriously and solemnly, and extolled its poor stock-in-trade in such a mountebank fashion, meanwhile gradually lost its pedantic innocence.
The fight of the Germans, and especially of the Prussian bourgeoisie, against feudal aristocracy and absolute monarchy, in other words, the liberal movement, became more earnest.
By this, the long-wished for opportunity was offered to “True” Socialism of confronting the political movement with the Socialist demands, of hurling the traditional anathemas against liberalism, against representative government, against bourgeois competition, bourgeois freedom of the press, bourgeois legislation, bourgeois liberty and equality, and of preaching to the masses that they had nothing to gain, and everything to lose, by this bourgeois movement. German Socialism forgot, in the nick of time, that the French criticism, whose silly echo it was, presupposed the existence of modern bourgeois society, with its corresponding economic conditions of existence, and the political constitution adapted thereto, the very things those attainment was the object of the pending struggle in Germany.
To the absolute governments, with their following of parsons, professors, country squires, and officials, it served as a welcome scarecrow against the threatening bourgeoisie.
It was a sweet finish, after the bitter pills of flogging and bullets, with which these same governments, just at that time, dosed the German working-class risings.
While this “True” Socialism thus served the government as a weapon for fighting the German bourgeoisie, it, at the same time, directly represented a reactionary interest, the interest of German Philistines. In Germany, the petty-bourgeois class, a relic of the sixteenth century, and since then constantly cropping up again under the various forms, is the real social basis of the existing state of things.
To preserve this class is to preserve the existing state of things in Germany. The industrial and political supremacy of the bourgeoisie threatens it with certain destruction — on the one hand, from the concentration of capital; on the other, from the rise of a revolutionary proletariat. “True” Socialism appeared to kill these two birds with one stone. It spread like an epidemic.
The robe of speculative cobwebs, embroidered with flowers of rhetoric, steeped in the dew of sickly sentiment, this transcendental robe in which the German Socialists wrapped their sorry “eternal truths”, all skin and bone, served to wonderfully increase the sale of their goods amongst such a public.
And on its part German Socialism recognised, more and more, its own calling as the bombastic representative of the petty-bourgeois Philistine.
It proclaimed the German nation to be the model nation, and the German petty Philistine to be the typical man. To every villainous meanness of this model man, it gave a hidden, higher, Socialistic interpretation, the exact contrary of its real character. It went to the extreme length of directly opposing the “brutally destructive” tendency of Communism, and of proclaiming its supreme and impartial contempt of all class struggles. With very few exceptions, all the so-called Socialist and Communist publications that now (1847) circulate in Germany belong to the domain of this foul and enervating literature.11
2. Conservative or Bourgeois Socialism
A part of the bourgeoisie is desirous of redressing social grievances in order to secure the continued existence of bourgeois society.
To this section belong economists, philanthropists, humanitarians, improvers of the condition of the working class, organisers of charity, members of societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals, temperance fanatics, hole-and-corner reformers of every imaginable kind. This form of socialism has, moreover, been worked out into complete systems.
We may cite Proudhon’s Philosophie de la Misère as an example of this form.
The Socialistic bourgeois want all the advantages of modern social conditions without the struggles and dangers necessarily resulting therefrom. They desire the existing state of society, minus its revolutionary and disintegrating elements. They wish for a bourgeoisie without a proletariat. The bourgeoisie naturally conceives the world in which it is supreme to be the best; and bourgeois Socialism develops this comfortable conception into various more or less complete systems. In requiring the proletariat to carry out such a system, and thereby to march straightway into the social New Jerusalem, it but requires in reality, that the proletariat should remain within the bounds of existing society, but should cast away all its hateful ideas concerning the bourgeoisie.
A second, and more practical, but less systematic, form of this Socialism sought to depreciate every revolutionary movement in the eyes of the working class by showing that no mere political reform, but only a change in the material conditions of existence, in economical relations, could be of any advantage to them. By changes in the material conditions of existence, this form of Socialism, however, by no means understands abolition of the bourgeois relations of production, an abolition that can be affected only by a revolution, but administrative reforms, based on the continued existence of these relations; reforms, therefore, that in no respect affect the relations between capital and labour, but, at the best, lessen the cost, and simplify the administrative work, of bourgeois government.
Bourgeois Socialism attains adequate expression when, and only when, it becomes a mere figure of speech.
Free trade: for the benefit of the working class. Protective duties: for the benefit of the working class. Prison Reform: for the benefit of the working class. This is the last word and the only seriously meant word of bourgeois socialism.
It is summed up in the phrase: the bourgeois is a bourgeois — for the benefit of the working class.
3. Critical-Utopian Socialism and Communism
We do not here refer to that literature which, in every great modern revolution, has always given voice to the demands of the proletariat, such as the writings of Babeuf and others.
The first direct attempts of the proletariat to attain its own ends, made in times of universal excitement, when feudal society was being overthrown, necessarily failed, owing to the then undeveloped state of the proletariat, as well as to the absence of the economic conditions for its emancipation, conditions that had yet to be produced, and could be produced by the impending bourgeois epoch alone. The revolutionary literature that accompanied these first movements of the proletariat had necessarily a reactionary character. It inculcated universal asceticism and social levelling in its crudest form.
The Socialist and Communist systems, properly so called, those of Saint-Simon, Fourier, Owen, and others, spring into existence in the early undeveloped period, described above, of the struggle between proletariat and bourgeoisie (see Section 1. Bourgeois and Proletarians).
The founders of these systems see, indeed, the class antagonisms, as well as the action of the decomposing elements in the prevailing form of society. But the proletariat, as yet in its infancy, offers to them the spectacle of a class without any historical initiative or any independent political movement.
Since the development of class antagonism keeps even pace with the development of industry, the economic situation, as they find it, does not as yet offer to them the material conditions for the emancipation of the proletariat. They therefore search after a new social science, after new social laws, that are to create these conditions.
Historical action is to yield to their personal inventive action; historically created conditions of emancipation to fantastic ones; and the gradual, spontaneous class organisation of the proletariat to an organisation of society especially contrived by these inventors. Future history resolves itself, in their eyes, into the propaganda and the practical carrying out of their social plans.
In the formation of their plans, they are conscious of caring chiefly for the interests of the working class, as being the most suffering class. Only from the point of view of being the most suffering class does the proletariat exist for them.
The undeveloped state of the class struggle, as well as their own surroundings, causes Socialists of this kind to consider themselves far superior to all class antagonisms. They want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favoured. Hence, they habitually appeal to society at large, without the distinction of class; nay, by preference, to the ruling class. For how can people, when once they understand their system, fail to see in it the best possible plan of the best possible state of society?
Hence, they reject all political, and especially all revolutionary action; they wish to attain their ends by peaceful means, necessarily doomed to failure, and by the force of example, to pave the way for the new social Gospel.
Such fantastic pictures of future society, painted at a time when the proletariat is still in a very undeveloped state and has but a fantastic conception of its own position, correspond with the first instinctive yearnings of that class for a general reconstruction of society.
But these Socialist and Communist publications contain also a critical element. They attack every principle of existing society. Hence, they are full of the most valuable materials for the enlightenment of the working class. The practical measures proposed in them — such as the abolition of the distinction between town and country, of the family, of the carrying on of industries for the account of private individuals, and of the wage system, the proclamation of social harmony, the conversion of the function of the state into a more superintendence of production — all these proposals point solely to the disappearance of class antagonisms which were, at that time, only just cropping up, and which, in these publications, are recognised in their earliest indistinct and undefined forms only. These proposals, therefore, are of a purely Utopian character.
The significance of Critical-Utopian Socialism and Communism bears an inverse relation to historical development. In proportion as the modern class struggle develops and takes definite shape, this fantastic standing apart from the contest, these fantastic attacks on it, lose all practical value and all theoretical justification. Therefore, although the originators of these systems were, in many respects, revolutionary, their disciples have, in every case, formed mere reactionary sects. They hold fast by the original views of their masters, in opposition to the progressive historical development of the proletariat. They, therefore, endeavour, and that consistently, to deaden the class struggle and to reconcile the class antagonisms. They still dream of experimental realisation of their social Utopias, of founding isolated “phalansteres”, of establishing “Home Colonies”, or setting up a “Little Icaria”12 — duodecimo editions of the New Jerusalem — and to realise all these castles in the air, they are compelled to appeal to the feelings and purses of the bourgeois. By degrees, they sink into the category of the reactionary [or] conservative Socialists depicted above, differing from these only by more systematic pedantry, and by their fanatical and superstitious belief in the miraculous effects of their social science.
They, therefore, violently oppose all political action on the part of the working class; such action, according to them, can only result from blind unbelief in the new Gospel.
The Owenites in England, and the Fourierists in France, respectively, oppose the Chartists and the Réformistes.
Chapter IV. Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Existing Opposition Parties
Section II has made clear the relations of the Communists to the existing working-class parties, such as the Chartists in England and the Agrarian Reformers in America.
The Communists fight for the attainment of the immediate aims, for the enforcement of the momentary interests of the working class; but in the movement of the present, they also represent and take care of the future of that movement. In France, the Communists ally with the Social-Democrats13 against the conservative and radical bourgeoisie, reserving, however, the right to take up a critical position in regard to phases and illusions traditionally handed down from the great Revolution.
In Switzerland, they support the Radicals, without losing sight of the fact that this party consists of antagonistic elements, partly of Democratic Socialists, in the French sense, partly of radical bourgeois.
In Poland, they support the party that insists on an agrarian revolution as the prime condition for national emancipation, that party which fomented the insurrection of Cracow in 1846.
In Germany, they fight with the bourgeoisie whenever it acts in a revolutionary way, against the absolute monarchy, the feudal squirearchy, and the petty bourgeoisie.
But they never cease, for a single instant, to instill into the working class the clearest possible recognition of the hostile antagonism between bourgeoisie and proletariat, in order that the German workers may straightway use, as so many weapons against the bourgeoisie, the social and political conditions that the bourgeoisie must necessarily introduce along with its supremacy, and in order that, after the fall of the reactionary classes in Germany, the fight against the bourgeoisie itself may immediately begin.
The Communists turn their attention chiefly to Germany, because that country is on the eve of a bourgeois revolution that is bound to be carried out under more advanced conditions of European civilisation and with a much more developed proletariat than that of England was in the seventeenth, and France in the eighteenth century, and because the bourgeois revolution in Germany will be but the prelude to an immediately following proletarian revolution.
In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things.
In all these movements, they bring to the front, as the leading question in each, the property question, no matter what its degree of development at the time.
Finally, they labour everywhere for the union and agreement of the democratic parties of all countries.
The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win.
Working Men of All Countries, Unite!
プロレタリアとは、自分の生産手段をもたないので生活のためにその労働力を売るほかない、近代賃金労働者を意味する。[1888年英語版へのエンゲルスの注]
By proletariat, the class of modern wage labourers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labour power in order to live. [Engels, 1888 English edition]
コミューンとは、フランスで新興の都市が、まだ封建領主やギルドの親方から地方自治と第三身分としての政治的権利とを獲得していない時期から採用していた名前だった。一般的にいって、ここではブルジョアの経済的発達についてはイギリスを、政治的発達についてはフランスを、標本的な国として引例する。[1888年英語版へのエンゲルスの注]
“Commune” was the name taken in France by the nascent towns even before they had conquered from their feudal lords and masters local self-government and political rights as the “Third Estate.” Generally speaking, for the economical development of the bourgeoisie, England is here taken as the typical country, for its political development, France. [Engels, 1888 English Edition]
“Home Colonies” were what Owen called his Communist model societies. Phalanstéres was the name of the public palaces planned by Fourier. Icaria was the name given to the Utopian land of fancy, whose Communist institutions Cabet portrayed. [Note by Engels to the German edition of 1890.]
youtubeのプレイリストを作りたかったけど、順番通りに最新の状態を保つのが面倒で、こういう形になった。
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それで私が書いたやつはこれで終わり。
and that's all i wrote.
"im breaking up with you": 本来は恋愛的な文脈における"もう終わりにしましょう"というようなフレーズ。おそらくこのtaleに関する言及と思われる。"
ライセンス
著者解説タブの共産党宣言 日本語訳版は、青空文庫にてパブリックドメインで公開されている Marx, Karl Heinrich・Engels, Friedrich (1949)『共産黨宣言』(堺利彦・幸徳秋水訳、改訂第5版) 彰考書院 を元に、islandsmasterが独自に修正したものです。翻訳にあたっては、こちら、こちらのサイトにおける翻訳表現を一部参考としています。
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- portal:5060201 (15 Jan 2019 17:15)